封面
市場調查報告書
商品編碼
2046476

大麻二酚市場-全球產業規模、佔有率、趨勢、機會、預測:按來源類型、銷售類型、最終用戶、地區和競爭格局分類,2021-2031年

Cannabidiol Market - Global Industry Size, Share, Trends, Opportunity, and Forecast, Segmented By Source Type, By Sales Type, By End User, By Region & Competition, 2021-2031F

出版日期: | 出版商: TechSci Research | 英文 185 Pages | 商品交期: 2-3個工作天內

價格

We offer 8 hour analyst time for an additional research. Please contact us for the details.

簡介目錄

全球大麻二酚 (CBD) 市場預計將從 2025 年的 68.8 億美元成長到 2031 年的 140.7 億美元,複合年成長率為 12.66%。

大麻二酚 (CBD) 主要提取自Cannabis sativa(Cannabis sativa),是一種非成癮性植物大麻素,廣泛應用於神經病學、疼痛管理和健康領域。隨著醫用大麻衍生產品的合法化程度不斷提高,以及消費者越來越傾向於選擇天然療法而非合成藥物,市場擴張也隨之而來,這需要提高農業產量以滿足提取需求。根據美國國家大麻協會的數據,作為大麻素提取主要生質能來源的大麻花頭產量在 2024 年達到了 2,080 萬英鎊。

市場概覽
預測期 2027-2031
市場規模:2025年 68.8億美元
市場規模:2031年 140.7億美元
複合年成長率:2026-2031年 12.66%
成長最快的細分市場
最大的市場 北美洲

然而,由於缺乏統一的法規結構,該行業面臨著許多挑戰,尤其是在膳食補充劑和食品中CBD的分類方面。這種法律上的模糊性導致合規性不一致,限制了關鍵零售和銀行服務的獲取,並嚴重阻礙了資本投資和國際貿易的效率。因此,缺乏標準化的管治仍然是限制該行業充分發揮其經濟潛力的主要因素。

市場促進因素

全球範圍內的非刑事化和漸進式的法律改革正在從根本上改變市場格局,消除貿易壁壘,改善醫療保健服務的可及性。主要經濟體對大麻的重新分類,例如德國決定將其從藥品清單中移除,顯著促進了國際貿易和患者用藥供應,簡化了處方流程,並推動了該藥物的進口。根據德國聯邦藥品和醫療設備研究所的數據,德國將在2025年第二季進口43,257噸醫用大麻產品,較上年同期的11,634噸大幅增加。此外,彭博集團報告稱,自2025年大麻法實施以來,德國醫用大麻處方箋在去年3月至12月期間激增約1,000%。

同時,為維持這個不斷發展的商業生態系統,對工業大麻加工和種植的戰略投資正在加強。生產商正投資建造先進的農業基礎設施,以確保穩定供應高品質、富含大麻素的生質能,滿足健康和製藥業的嚴格要求。美國農業部在2025年4月發布的《國家大麻報告》中指出,2024年美國戶外種植的大麻花市場規模將達到3.86億美元,比去年增加43%。這些對上游價值鏈的投資對於降低生產成本和確保原料供應至關重要,以滿足全球對CBD產品日益成長的需求。

市場挑戰

全球大麻二酚 (CBD) 市場面臨的主要障礙之一是缺乏統一的法規結構,尤其是在 CBD 的分類方面,即究竟應將其歸類為膳食補充劑還是食品。這種不確定性迫使製造商在各州各自獨立的監管體系下摸索前行,而非遵循統一的聯邦標準,導致營運效率低落。繁重的合規負擔分散了本應用於創新的資源,並限制了人們獲得必要的銀行和零售服務。因此,那些認為該產業風險過高的機構投資者紛紛離場。最終,CBD 產業在建立穩健的供應鏈和分銷管道方面面臨重重困難,而這些對於 CBD 的廣泛應用至關重要。

這種監管的不穩定性直接阻礙了企業的擴充性和市場估值。根據德克薩斯大麻商業委員會2024年的數據,基礎設施的匱乏和持續的監管波動表明,美國大麻產業的經濟潛力估計已減少了200億至250億美元。這一數字凸顯出,缺乏明確的管治不僅減緩了企業的運營,也嚴重阻礙了產生收入。由於缺乏健全的法律基礎來促進州際貿易和確保合規性,市場仍然受到人為的限制,無法充分利用全球消費者的需求。

市場趨勢

改變市場格局的關鍵趨勢之一是產品配方中對 CBN 和 CBG 等次要大麻素的日益重視。製造商不再局限於基礎的 CBD隔離群,而是致力於開發針對特定症狀的混合產品。這一轉變源於消費者對能夠利用「協同效應」治療發炎和失眠等特定問題的高階健康解決方案的需求,促使品牌擴大將這些次要大麻素作為關鍵活性成分。根據 SFGATE 2025 年 5 月的一篇報導,加州食用產品中 CBN 的市場佔有率預計將從 2020 年的 4% 大幅成長至 2025 年的 25%,凸顯了這些特殊化合物的快速普及。

同時,功能性CBD飲料產業正在蓬勃發展,透過將大麻基飲料作為一種社會認可的酒精替代品,改變了人們的消費模式。奈米乳化和水溶性技術的進步推動了這一成長,這些技術提高了生物利用度和口感,有效解決了傳統偏好方面的難題。各州層級的監管試點計畫進一步加速了該產業的發展,使產品能夠在普通零售市場取得成功。例如,CSP Daily News在2025年9月報道稱,光是明尼蘇達州的大麻基飲料市場規模就已達到2億美元,這充分展現了大麻素消費品的巨大經濟擴充性。

目錄

第1章概述

第2章:調查方法

第3章執行摘要

第4章:客戶心聲

第5章:全球大麻二酚市場展望

  • 市場規模及預測
    • 按金額
  • 市佔率及預測
    • 依原料(大麻、工業大麻)
    • 依銷售方式(B2B、B2C)分列的銷售額
    • 依最終使用者(醫療、個人用途、製藥、健康{食品飲料、個人護理及化妝品、營養保健品、其他})
    • 按地區
    • 按公司(2025 年)
  • 市場地圖

第6章:北美大麻二酚市場展望

  • 市場規模及預測
  • 市佔率及預測
  • 北美洲:國別分析
    • 美國
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥

第7章:歐洲大麻二酚市場展望

  • 市場規模及預測
  • 市佔率及預測
  • 歐洲:國別分析
    • 德國
    • 法國
    • 英國
    • 義大利
    • 西班牙

第8章:亞太地區大麻二酚市場展望

  • 市場規模及預測
  • 市佔率及預測
  • 亞太地區:國別分析
    • 中國
    • 印度
    • 日本
    • 韓國
    • 澳洲

第9章:中東和非洲大麻二酚市場展望

  • 市場規模及預測
  • 市佔率及預測
  • 中東與非洲:國別分析
    • 沙烏地阿拉伯
    • 阿拉伯聯合大公國
    • 南非

第10章:南美洲大麻二酚市場展望

  • 市場規模及預測
  • 市佔率及預測
  • 南美洲:國別分析
    • 巴西
    • 哥倫比亞
    • 阿根廷

第11章 市場動態

  • 促進因素
  • 任務

第12章 市場趨勢與發展

  • 併購
  • 產品發布
  • 近期趨勢

第13章:全球大麻二酚市場:SWOT分析

第14章:波特五力分析

  • 產業競爭
  • 新進入者的潛力
  • 供應商的議價能力
  • 顧客權力
  • 替代品的威脅

第15章 競爭格局

  • Eden Partners LLC
  • Isodiol International, Inc.
  • Medical Marijuana, Inc.
  • Cannoid, LLC
  • Elixinol Wellness Ltd.
  • Folium Food Science Limited
  • NuLeaf Naturals, LLC
  • Pharmahemp doo
  • Holistic Hemp Scotland Ltd.

第16章 策略建議

第17章:關於研究公司及免責聲明

簡介目錄
Product Code: 23889

The Global Cannabidiol Market is projected to expand from USD 6.88 Billion in 2025 to USD 14.07 Billion by 2031, reflecting a compound annual growth rate of 12.66%. Derived primarily from the Cannabis sativa plant, Cannabidiol (CBD) is a non-intoxicating phytocannabinoid extensively used in neurology, pain management, and wellness applications. Market expansion is anchored by the increasing legalization of cannabis derivatives for medical purposes and a consumer preference for natural therapies over synthetic drugs, which has necessitated a boost in agricultural production to support extraction needs. Data from the National Hemp Association indicates that floral hemp production, the main biomass for cannabinoid extraction, reached 20.8 million pounds in 2024.

Market Overview
Forecast Period2027-2031
Market Size 2025USD 6.88 Billion
Market Size 2031USD 14.07 Billion
CAGR 2026-203112.66%
Fastest Growing SegmentHemp
Largest MarketNorth America

However, the sector encounters substantial hurdles due to the absence of cohesive regulatory frameworks, particularly regarding the categorization of CBD in dietary supplements and food products. This jurisdictional legal ambiguity results in compliance inconsistencies and limits access to critical retail and banking services, effectively hindering capital investment and international trade efficiency. Consequently, the lack of standardized governance remains a primary constraint on the industry's full economic potential.

Market Driver

Global decriminalization and progressive legislative reforms are fundamentally transforming the market by eliminating trade barriers and enhancing medical access. The reclassification of cannabis in key economies, such as Germany's decision to remove it from the Narcotics List, has significantly boosted international trade and patient availability, streamlining prescription processes and encouraging pharmaceutical imports. According to the Federal Institute for Drugs and Medical Devices, Germany imported 43.257 tonnes of medical cannabis products in the second quarter of 2025, a marked rise from 11.634 tonnes during the same period the previous year. Furthermore, the Bloomwell Group reported in 2025 that medical cannabis prescriptions in Germany surged by roughly 1,000% between March and December of the prior year following the Cannabis Act's enactment.

Concurrently, strategic investments in industrial hemp processing and cultivation are intensifying to sustain this growing commercial ecosystem. Producers are channeling capital into advanced agricultural infrastructure to guarantee a reliable supply of high-quality, cannabinoid-rich biomass that meets the strict requirements of wellness and pharmaceutical sectors. In its April 2025 'National Hemp Report', the United States Department of Agriculture noted that the value of open-grown floral hemp in the U.S. reached $386 million in 2024, a 43% increase from the previous year. These upstream supply chain investments are vital for lowering production costs and ensuring raw material availability matches the rising global demand for CBD products.

Market Challenge

The primary impediment to the Global Cannabidiol Market is the absence of consistent regulatory frameworks, particularly regarding how CBD is classified within dietary supplements and food. This uncertainty forces manufacturers to manage a fragmented array of state-specific regulations instead of a unified federal standard, resulting in significant operational inefficiencies. The heavy compliance load drains resources from innovation and limits access to vital banking and retail services, thereby discouraging institutional investors who perceive the sector as excessively risky. As a result, the industry faces difficulties in building the robust supply chains and distribution channels required for widespread adoption.

This regulatory instability directly stifles scalability and market valuation. Data from the Texas Hemp Business Council in 2024 suggests that infrastructure deficits and ongoing regulatory volatility reduced the economic potential of the United States hemp industry by an estimated $20 billion to $25 billion. This figure underscores that the lack of clear governance does not merely retard operations but actively obstructs the generation of significant revenue. Without a solid legal foundation to facilitate interstate commerce and ensure compliance, the market remains artificially constrained and unable to fully leverage global consumer demand.

Market Trends

A major trend altering the market is the proliferation of minor cannabinoids like CBN and CBG in product formulations, as manufacturers advance beyond basic CBD isolates to develop targeted, condition-specific blends. This shift is fueled by consumer demand for sophisticated wellness solutions that leverage the "entourage effect" to treat specific issues such as inflammation and insomnia, with brands increasingly featuring these minor cannabinoids as primary active ingredients. According to an article in SFGATE from May 2025, the market share of CBN in California's edible products rose dramatically from just 4% in 2020 to 25% in 2025, highlighting the rapid adoption of these specialized compounds.

Simultaneously, the functional CBD-infused beverage sector is expanding, reshaping consumption patterns by offering hemp-derived drinks as socially acceptable alternatives to alcohol. This growth is supported by advancements in nano-emulsification and water-soluble technologies, which have improved bioavailability and taste, effectively addressing historical palatability challenges. State-level regulatory pilots have further accelerated this sector, allowing products to thrive in mainstream retail; for instance, CSP Daily News reported in September 2025 that the hemp-derived beverage industry in Minnesota alone has expanded into a $200 million market, illustrating the significant economic scalability of drinkable cannabinoids.

Key Market Players

  • Eden Partners LLC
  • Isodiol International, Inc.
  • Medical Marijuana, Inc.
  • Cannoid, LLC
  • Elixinol Wellness Ltd.
  • Folium Food Science Limited
  • NuLeaf Naturals, LLC
  • Pharmahemp d.o.o.
  • Holistic Hemp Scotland Ltd.

Report Scope

In this report, the Global Cannabidiol Market has been segmented into the following categories, in addition to the industry trends which have also been detailed below:

Cannabidiol Market, By Source Type

  • Hemp
  • Marijuana

Cannabidiol Market, By Sales Type

  • B2B
  • B2C

Cannabidiol Market, By End User

  • Medical
  • Personal Use
  • Pharmaceuticals
  • Wellness

Cannabidiol Market, By Region

  • North America
    • United States
    • Canada
    • Mexico
  • Europe
    • France
    • United Kingdom
    • Italy
    • Germany
    • Spain
  • Asia Pacific
    • China
    • India
    • Japan
    • Australia
    • South Korea
  • South America
    • Brazil
    • Argentina
    • Colombia
  • Middle East & Africa
    • South Africa
    • Saudi Arabia
    • UAE

Competitive Landscape

Company Profiles: Detailed analysis of the major companies present in the Global Cannabidiol Market.

Available Customizations:

Global Cannabidiol Market report with the given market data, TechSci Research offers customizations according to a company's specific needs. The following customization options are available for the report:

Company Information

  • Detailed analysis and profiling of additional market players (up to five).

Table of Contents

1. Product Overview

  • 1.1. Market Definition
  • 1.2. Scope of the Market
    • 1.2.1. Markets Covered
    • 1.2.2. Years Considered for Study
    • 1.2.3. Key Market Segmentations

2. Research Methodology

  • 2.1. Objective of the Study
  • 2.2. Baseline Methodology
  • 2.3. Key Industry Partners
  • 2.4. Major Association and Secondary Sources
  • 2.5. Forecasting Methodology
  • 2.6. Data Triangulation & Validation
  • 2.7. Assumptions and Limitations

3. Executive Summary

  • 3.1. Overview of the Market
  • 3.2. Overview of Key Market Segmentations
  • 3.3. Overview of Key Market Players
  • 3.4. Overview of Key Regions/Countries
  • 3.5. Overview of Market Drivers, Challenges, Trends

4. Voice of Customer

5. Global Cannabidiol Market Outlook

  • 5.1. Market Size & Forecast
    • 5.1.1. By Value
  • 5.2. Market Share & Forecast
    • 5.2.1. By Source Type (Hemp, Marijuana)
    • 5.2.2. By Sales Type (B2B, B2C)
    • 5.2.3. By End User (Medical, Personal Use, Pharmaceuticals, Wellness {Food & Beverage, Personal Care & Cosmetics, Nutraceuticals, Others})
    • 5.2.4. By Region
    • 5.2.5. By Company (2025)
  • 5.3. Market Map

6. North America Cannabidiol Market Outlook

  • 6.1. Market Size & Forecast
    • 6.1.1. By Value
  • 6.2. Market Share & Forecast
    • 6.2.1. By Source Type
    • 6.2.2. By Sales Type
    • 6.2.3. By End User
    • 6.2.4. By Country
  • 6.3. North America: Country Analysis
    • 6.3.1. United States Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 6.3.1.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 6.3.1.1.1. By Value
      • 6.3.1.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 6.3.1.2.1. By Source Type
        • 6.3.1.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 6.3.1.2.3. By End User
    • 6.3.2. Canada Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 6.3.2.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 6.3.2.1.1. By Value
      • 6.3.2.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 6.3.2.2.1. By Source Type
        • 6.3.2.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 6.3.2.2.3. By End User
    • 6.3.3. Mexico Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 6.3.3.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 6.3.3.1.1. By Value
      • 6.3.3.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 6.3.3.2.1. By Source Type
        • 6.3.3.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 6.3.3.2.3. By End User

7. Europe Cannabidiol Market Outlook

  • 7.1. Market Size & Forecast
    • 7.1.1. By Value
  • 7.2. Market Share & Forecast
    • 7.2.1. By Source Type
    • 7.2.2. By Sales Type
    • 7.2.3. By End User
    • 7.2.4. By Country
  • 7.3. Europe: Country Analysis
    • 7.3.1. Germany Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 7.3.1.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 7.3.1.1.1. By Value
      • 7.3.1.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 7.3.1.2.1. By Source Type
        • 7.3.1.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 7.3.1.2.3. By End User
    • 7.3.2. France Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 7.3.2.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 7.3.2.1.1. By Value
      • 7.3.2.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 7.3.2.2.1. By Source Type
        • 7.3.2.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 7.3.2.2.3. By End User
    • 7.3.3. United Kingdom Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 7.3.3.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 7.3.3.1.1. By Value
      • 7.3.3.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 7.3.3.2.1. By Source Type
        • 7.3.3.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 7.3.3.2.3. By End User
    • 7.3.4. Italy Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 7.3.4.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 7.3.4.1.1. By Value
      • 7.3.4.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 7.3.4.2.1. By Source Type
        • 7.3.4.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 7.3.4.2.3. By End User
    • 7.3.5. Spain Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 7.3.5.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 7.3.5.1.1. By Value
      • 7.3.5.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 7.3.5.2.1. By Source Type
        • 7.3.5.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 7.3.5.2.3. By End User

8. Asia Pacific Cannabidiol Market Outlook

  • 8.1. Market Size & Forecast
    • 8.1.1. By Value
  • 8.2. Market Share & Forecast
    • 8.2.1. By Source Type
    • 8.2.2. By Sales Type
    • 8.2.3. By End User
    • 8.2.4. By Country
  • 8.3. Asia Pacific: Country Analysis
    • 8.3.1. China Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 8.3.1.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 8.3.1.1.1. By Value
      • 8.3.1.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 8.3.1.2.1. By Source Type
        • 8.3.1.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 8.3.1.2.3. By End User
    • 8.3.2. India Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 8.3.2.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 8.3.2.1.1. By Value
      • 8.3.2.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 8.3.2.2.1. By Source Type
        • 8.3.2.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 8.3.2.2.3. By End User
    • 8.3.3. Japan Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 8.3.3.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 8.3.3.1.1. By Value
      • 8.3.3.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 8.3.3.2.1. By Source Type
        • 8.3.3.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 8.3.3.2.3. By End User
    • 8.3.4. South Korea Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 8.3.4.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 8.3.4.1.1. By Value
      • 8.3.4.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 8.3.4.2.1. By Source Type
        • 8.3.4.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 8.3.4.2.3. By End User
    • 8.3.5. Australia Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 8.3.5.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 8.3.5.1.1. By Value
      • 8.3.5.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 8.3.5.2.1. By Source Type
        • 8.3.5.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 8.3.5.2.3. By End User

9. Middle East & Africa Cannabidiol Market Outlook

  • 9.1. Market Size & Forecast
    • 9.1.1. By Value
  • 9.2. Market Share & Forecast
    • 9.2.1. By Source Type
    • 9.2.2. By Sales Type
    • 9.2.3. By End User
    • 9.2.4. By Country
  • 9.3. Middle East & Africa: Country Analysis
    • 9.3.1. Saudi Arabia Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 9.3.1.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 9.3.1.1.1. By Value
      • 9.3.1.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 9.3.1.2.1. By Source Type
        • 9.3.1.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 9.3.1.2.3. By End User
    • 9.3.2. UAE Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 9.3.2.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 9.3.2.1.1. By Value
      • 9.3.2.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 9.3.2.2.1. By Source Type
        • 9.3.2.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 9.3.2.2.3. By End User
    • 9.3.3. South Africa Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 9.3.3.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 9.3.3.1.1. By Value
      • 9.3.3.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 9.3.3.2.1. By Source Type
        • 9.3.3.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 9.3.3.2.3. By End User

10. South America Cannabidiol Market Outlook

  • 10.1. Market Size & Forecast
    • 10.1.1. By Value
  • 10.2. Market Share & Forecast
    • 10.2.1. By Source Type
    • 10.2.2. By Sales Type
    • 10.2.3. By End User
    • 10.2.4. By Country
  • 10.3. South America: Country Analysis
    • 10.3.1. Brazil Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 10.3.1.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 10.3.1.1.1. By Value
      • 10.3.1.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 10.3.1.2.1. By Source Type
        • 10.3.1.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 10.3.1.2.3. By End User
    • 10.3.2. Colombia Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 10.3.2.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 10.3.2.1.1. By Value
      • 10.3.2.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 10.3.2.2.1. By Source Type
        • 10.3.2.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 10.3.2.2.3. By End User
    • 10.3.3. Argentina Cannabidiol Market Outlook
      • 10.3.3.1. Market Size & Forecast
        • 10.3.3.1.1. By Value
      • 10.3.3.2. Market Share & Forecast
        • 10.3.3.2.1. By Source Type
        • 10.3.3.2.2. By Sales Type
        • 10.3.3.2.3. By End User

11. Market Dynamics

  • 11.1. Drivers
  • 11.2. Challenges

12. Market Trends & Developments

  • 12.1. Merger & Acquisition (If Any)
  • 12.2. Product Launches (If Any)
  • 12.3. Recent Developments

13. Global Cannabidiol Market: SWOT Analysis

14. Porter's Five Forces Analysis

  • 14.1. Competition in the Industry
  • 14.2. Potential of New Entrants
  • 14.3. Power of Suppliers
  • 14.4. Power of Customers
  • 14.5. Threat of Substitute Products

15. Competitive Landscape

  • 15.1. Eden Partners LLC
    • 15.1.1. Business Overview
    • 15.1.2. Products & Services
    • 15.1.3. Recent Developments
    • 15.1.4. Key Personnel
    • 15.1.5. SWOT Analysis
  • 15.2. Isodiol International, Inc.
  • 15.3. Medical Marijuana, Inc.
  • 15.4. Cannoid, LLC
  • 15.5. Elixinol Wellness Ltd.
  • 15.6. Folium Food Science Limited
  • 15.7. NuLeaf Naturals, LLC
  • 15.8. Pharmahemp d.o.o.
  • 15.9. Holistic Hemp Scotland Ltd.

16. Strategic Recommendations

17. About Us & Disclaimer