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1889244

車輛貼膜及客製化市場預測至2032年：全球貼膜類型、材料、車輛類型、表面處理、應用及區域分析

Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Forecasts to 2032 - Global Analysis By Wrap Type (Full Wraps, Interior Wraps, Partial Wraps, Window Wraps and Roof & Hood Wraps), Material, Vehicle Type, Finish, Application and By Geography
出版日期: | 出版商: Stratistics Market Research Consulting | 英文 | 商品交期: 2-3個工作天內

價格

根據 Stratistics MRC 的一項研究，預計到 2025 年，全球汽車貼膜和客製化市場價值將達到 73 億美元，到 2032 年將達到 128 億美元，在預測期內的複合年成長率為 8.4%。

車身貼膜和改裝是指對車輛外觀（有時也包括內裝）進行改造，以實現獨特的美學、品牌或功能目標。這包括車身貼膜、貼紙和圖案應用，以及客製化噴漆、車身套件、燈光改裝和內裝升級。企業通常利用車身貼膜進行廣告宣傳和品牌推廣，而個人消費者則尋求能夠體現自身風格和個性的個人化。除了美觀之外，改裝還能提升車輛的保護性、耐用性和性能。車身貼膜和改裝融合了創意、行銷和工程技術，將普通車輛轉變為視覺衝擊力強、功能齊全且高度個人化的資產，從而提升車輛在道路和公共場所的辨識度。

對個性化車輛的需求不斷成長

車輛貼膜和客製化市場的發展動力源自於消費者和企業對獨特個人化車輛日益成長的需求。私人車主越來越傾向於透過客製化貼膜、貼紙和改裝來展現個人風格和身份，而企業則利用車輛貼膜進行品牌推廣和行動廣告宣傳。這種不斷成長的需求推動了材料、設計技術和應用服務的創新，促使製造商和服務供應商提供兼顧美觀、功能和品牌識別的各種選擇，從而推動市場成長。

高昂的建設和維修成本

儘管市場需求強勁，汽車貼膜和改裝市場仍面臨高昂的施工和維修成本帶來的挑戰。高檔乙烯基貼膜、客製化噴漆和複雜的改裝都需要技術嫻熟的技師和專用設備，推高了整體成本。維護對於保持美觀和耐用性至關重要，這又增加了成本。這些經濟因素限制了個人消費者和中小企業的接受度，抑制了市場成長，同時也促使企業開發既經濟高效又不犧牲品質或設計的解決方案。

印刷技術和乙烯基材料的進步

印刷技術和乙烯基材料的進步正在創造巨大的市場機會。高解析度印刷、耐用且環保的乙烯基薄膜以及易於黏貼的包裝材料，使得更複雜的設計、更快的施工速度和更持久的飾面效果成為可能。新興技術也提高了色彩還原度、金屬效果、紋理飾面和耐候性。這些進步透過拓展創造性可能性、吸引更廣泛的消費群體以及開闢商業品牌推廣、個人造型和增強功能性等新應用領域，推動了市場擴張。

監管限制

監管限制對車身貼膜和改裝市場構成威脅。地方政府法規可能限制反光材料的使用、燈光改裝和圖案位置。安全法規也對油漆品質、黏合劑和可見度標準做出規定。違反這些法規可能導致罰款和強制拆除，從而增加成本併中斷營運。這些限制可能會延緩實施，尤其是對於那些將車身貼膜用於廣告目的的公司而言，從而阻礙市場成長。

新冠疫情的影響：

新冠疫情導致企業停業、安裝延誤和消費者支出減少，嚴重衝擊了汽車貼膜和改裝市場。供應鏈中斷影響了乙烯基材料生產、印刷服務和配件供應。保持社交定序和封鎖措施限制了車間產運作，延誤了車輛改裝。然而，隨著疫情後經濟復甦，消費者和企業恢復改裝計劃，需求再次回升。

預計在預測期內，金屬產業將佔據最大的市場佔有率。

由於其引人注目的視覺效果和多功能性，金屬車身貼膜預計將在預測期內佔據最大的市場佔有率。金屬車身貼膜具有高反射率、立體感和高級美感，吸引著追求吸睛設計的個人消費者和企業客戶。此外，這些貼膜經久耐用，能夠有效抵禦環境損害，使其成為實用之選。其在乘用車、商用車和特殊車輛領域的廣泛應用將確保穩定的需求，並幫助金屬車身貼膜在預測期內鞏固其市場領先地位。

預計在預測期內，乘用車細分市場將實現最高的複合年成長率。

預計在預測期內，乘用車細分市場將實現最高成長率，這主要得益於個人車主日益成長的個人化需求。消費者希望透過個人化客製化來展現美感、提升品牌形像或增強車輛的防護功能。車身貼膜材料、設計服務和應用技術的創新，使得個人化客製化更加便利且更具吸引力。此外，全球乘用車銷量成長、可支配收入增加以及都市化的推進，也進一步推動了這一成長，使車主能夠投資於車輛的風格和功能升級，從而使乘用車細分市場成為成長最快的細分市場。

佔比最大的地區：

由於快速的都市化、不斷成長的汽車銷售以及消費者對個人化客製化的強勁需求，預計亞太地區將在預測期內佔據最大的市場佔有率。可支配收入的成長、中產階級人口的壯大以及企業品牌推廣活動的增加將進一步推動市場滲透。先進的製造能力和主要行業參與者的存在也有助於提高供應鏈效率和促進創新。這些因素共同作用，將使亞太地區在預測期內成為汽車貼膜和客製化領域的主要市場。

複合年成長率最高的地區：

由於消費者意識高、汽車文化濃厚以及企業廣泛採用品牌策略，預計北美在預測期內將實現最高的複合年成長率。技術先進的市場、專業的安裝服務以及年輕一代對車輛個性化日益成長的興趣將進一步推動成長。嚴格的品質標準和對高階車身貼膜的偏好將促進材料和設計的創新。這些因素共同推動市場擴張，使北美成為預測期內成長最快的地區。

免費提供客製化服務：

購買此報告的客戶可享有以下免費自訂選項之一：

  • 公司概況
    • 對其他市場參與者（最多 3 家公司）進行全面分析
    • 主要參與者（最多3家公司）的SWOT分析
  • 區域細分
    • 根據客戶要求，提供主要國家的市場估算和預測，以及複合年成長率（註：可行性需確認）。
  • 競爭基準化分析
    • 根據主要參與者的產品系列、地理覆蓋範圍和策略聯盟基準化分析

目錄

第1章執行摘要

第2章 前言

  • 摘要
  • 相關利益者
  • 調查範圍
  • 調查方法
  • 研究材料

第3章 市場趨勢分析

  • 促進要素
  • 抑制因素
  • 機會
  • 威脅
  • 應用分析
  • 新興市場
  • 新冠疫情的影響

第4章 波特五力分析

  • 供應商的議價能力
  • 買方的議價能力
  • 替代品的威脅
  • 新進入者的威脅
  • 競爭對手之間的競爭

5. 全球汽車貼膜及客製化市場（依貼膜類型分類）

  • 全包覆
  • 內包裝
  • 部分包裹
  • 窗戶包裝
  • 車頂與引擎蓋貼膜

6. 全球汽車貼膜及客製化市場（依材料分類）

  • 鑄造乙烯基
  • 鉻膜
  • 壓延乙烯基
  • 漆面保護膜
  • 碳纖維膜

7. 全球汽車貼膜和客製化市場（按車輛類型分類）

  • 搭乘用車
  • 大型商用車輛
  • 輕型商用車
  • 摩托車

8. 全球汽車貼膜及客製化市場（依飾面分類）

  • 光澤
  • 紋理
  • 墊
  • 金屬
  • 緞

9. 全球汽車貼膜和客製化市場（按應用領域分類）

  • 廣告與品牌推廣
  • 車隊品牌推廣
  • 個人化
  • 保護/保存

第10章：全球汽車貼膜和客製化市場（按地區分類）

  • 北美洲
    • 美國
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥
  • 歐洲
    • 德國
    • 英國
    • 義大利
    • 法國
    • 西班牙
    • 其他歐洲
  • 亞太地區
    • 日本
    • 中國
    • 印度
    • 澳洲
    • 紐西蘭
    • 韓國
    • 亞太其他地區
  • 南美洲
    • 阿根廷
    • 巴西
    • 智利
    • 其他南美國家
  • 中東和非洲
    • 沙烏地阿拉伯
    • 阿拉伯聯合大公國
    • 卡達
    • 南非
    • 其他中東和非洲地區

第11章 重大進展

  • 協議、夥伴關係、合作和合資企業
  • 併購
  • 新產品發布
  • 業務拓展
  • 其他關鍵策略

第12章 企業概況

  • 3M Company
  • JMR Graphics Inc.
  • Avery Dennison Corporation
  • APA SpA
  • Orafol Group
  • Spandex AG
  • Hexis SA
  • Metamark
  • Arlon Graphics LLC
  • Guangzhou Carbins Film Co., Ltd.
  • Ritrama SpA
  • TeckWrap
  • KPMF
  • Inozetek
  • Vvivid Vinyl
Product Code: SMRC32704

According to Stratistics MRC, the Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market is accounted for $7.3 billion in 2025 and is expected to reach $12.8 billion by 2032 growing at a CAGR of 8.4% during the forecast period. Vehicle wrap and customization refers to the process of altering a vehicle's exterior and sometimes interior to achieve a unique aesthetic, branding, or functional purpose. This includes applying vinyl wraps, decals, and graphics, as well as custom paint jobs, body kits, lighting modifications, and interior enhancements. Businesses often use vehicle wraps for advertising and brand visibility, while individual consumers pursue personalization to reflect style or identity. Beyond aesthetics, customization can improve protection, durability, or performance. Blending creativity, marketing, and engineering, vehicle wrap and customization transforms ordinary vehicles into visually striking, functional, and highly personalized assets that stand out on roads and in public spaces.

Market Dynamics:

Driver:

Rising demand for personalized vehicles

The vehicle wrap and customization market is being driven by a growing desire among consumers and businesses for unique, personalized vehicles. Individual owners increasingly seek to express personal style and identity through custom wraps, decals, and modifications, while businesses leverage vehicle graphics for branding and mobile advertising. This rising demand is fueling innovation in materials, design techniques, and installation services, encouraging manufacturers and service providers to offer diverse options that cater to aesthetics, functionality, and brand visibility, expanding market growth.

Restraint:

High installation and maintenance costs

Despite strong demand, the vehicle wrap and customization market faces challenges from high installation and maintenance costs. Premium vinyl wraps, custom paint jobs, and intricate modifications require skilled labor and specialized equipment, elevating overall expenses. Maintenance is essential to preserve aesthetics and durability, further adding to costs. These financial considerations can limit adoption among individual consumers and smaller businesses, restraining market growth and pushing companies to develop cost-effective solutions without compromising quality or design appeal.

Opportunity:

Advancements in printing and vinyl technology

Technological advancements in printing and vinyl materials present significant opportunities for the market. High-resolution printing, durable and eco-friendly vinyl films, and easy-to-apply wraps allow for more intricate designs, faster installation, and longer-lasting results. Emerging innovations also enable improved color fidelity, metallic and textured effects, and enhanced protection against weathering. These developments expand creative possibilities, attract a broader consumer base, and open new applications in commercial branding, personal styling, and functional enhancements, driving market expansion.

Threat:

Regulatory restrictions

Regulatory restrictions pose a threat to the vehicle wrap and customization market. Local laws may limit reflective materials, lighting modifications, or graphics placement, while safety regulations govern paint quality, adhesives, and visibility standards. Non-compliance can lead to fines or mandatory removal, creating additional costs and operational hurdles. Such restrictions may slow adoption, particularly for businesses using wraps for advertising. Thus, it hinders the growth of the market.

Covid-19 Impact:

The Covid-19 pandemic disrupted the vehicle wrap and customization market by halting operations, delaying installations, and reducing consumer spending. Supply chain interruptions affected vinyl production, printing services, and accessory availability. Social distancing and lockdowns limited workshops' capacity and delayed vehicle modifications. However, post-pandemic recovery is driving renewed demand, as consumers and businesses resume personalization projects.

The metallic segment is expected to be the largest during the forecast period

The metallic segment is expected to account for the largest market share during the forecast period, due to its striking visual appeal and versatility. Metallic wraps provide high-reflective finishes, depth, and luxury aesthetics that attract both individual consumers and businesses seeking attention-grabbing designs. Additionally, these wraps offer durability and protection against environmental damage, making them a practical choice. Their widespread application across passenger cars, commercial vehicles, and specialty vehicles ensures a steady demand, cementing the metallic segment as the market leader during the forecast period.

The passenger cars segment is expected to have the highest CAGR during the forecast period

Over the forecast period, the passenger cars segment is predicted to witness the highest growth rate, due to increasing personalization trends among private vehicle owners. Consumers seek customization for aesthetic expression, brand alignment, or protective functionality. Innovations in wrap materials, design services, and installation techniques make customization accessible and appealing. The growth is further fueled by a rising number of passenger car sales globally, disposable income growth, and urbanization, enabling vehicle owners to invest in both style and functional upgrades, positioning this segment as the fastest-growing.

Region with largest share:

During the forecast period, the Asia Pacific region is expected to hold the largest market share, due to rapid urbanization, growing automotive sales, and a strong consumer appetite for personalization. Rising disposable incomes, expanding middle-class populations, and increasing business branding activities further fuel market adoption. Advanced manufacturing capabilities and the presence of key industry players also support supply chain efficiency and innovation. Together, these factors position the Asia Pacific region as the dominant market for vehicle wrap and customization during the forecast period.

Region with highest CAGR:

Over the forecast period, the North America region is anticipated to exhibit the highest CAGR, owing to high consumer awareness, robust automotive culture, and widespread adoption of branding strategies by businesses. Technologically advanced markets, skilled installation services, and growing interest in vehicle personalization among younger demographics further boost growth. Strict quality standards and preference for premium wraps push innovation in materials and designs. These factors combine to accelerate market expansion, making North America the fastest-growing region over the forecast period.

Key players in the market

Some of the key players in Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market include 3M Company, JMR Graphics Inc., Avery Dennison Corporation, APA S.p.A., Orafol Group, Spandex AG, Hexis S.A., Metamark, Arlon Graphics LLC, Guangzhou Carbins Film Co., Ltd., Ritrama S.p.A., TeckWrap, KPMF, Inozetek and Vvivid Vinyl

Key Developments:

In September 2025, 3M has joined JOINT3 a consortium aimed at advancing next-generation semiconductor packaging. This move positions 3M to leverage its materials-science expertise to drive innovation in advanced packaging and to capture growth in high-performance electronics.

In December 2024, 3M and US Conec have struck a strategic licensing agreement to jointly deploy 3M's "Expanded Beam Optical Interconnect" technology a high-performance, scalable optical solution for data centers.

Wrap Types Covered:

  • Full Wraps
  • Interior Wraps
  • Partial Wraps
  • Window Wraps
  • Roof & Hood Wraps

Materials Covered:

  • Cast Vinyl
  • Chrome Films
  • Calendared Vinyl
  • Paint Protection Films
  • Carbon Fiber Films

Vehicle Types Covered:

  • Passenger Cars
  • Heavy Commercial Vehicles
  • Light Commercial Vehicles
  • Motorcycles

Finishes Covered:

  • Gloss
  • Textured
  • Matte
  • Metallic
  • Satin

Applications Covered:

  • Advertising & Branding
  • Fleet Branding
  • Personal Customization
  • Protection & Preservation

Regions Covered:

  • North America
    • US
    • Canada
    • Mexico
  • Europe
    • Germany
    • UK
    • Italy
    • France
    • Spain
    • Rest of Europe
  • Asia Pacific
    • Japan
    • China
    • India
    • Australia
    • New Zealand
    • South Korea
    • Rest of Asia Pacific
  • South America
    • Argentina
    • Brazil
    • Chile
    • Rest of South America
  • Middle East & Africa
    • Saudi Arabia
    • UAE
    • Qatar
    • South Africa
    • Rest of Middle East & Africa

What our report offers:

  • Market share assessments for the regional and country-level segments
  • Strategic recommendations for the new entrants
  • Covers Market data for the years 2024, 2025, 2026, 2028, and 2032
  • Market Trends (Drivers, Constraints, Opportunities, Threats, Challenges, Investment Opportunities, and recommendations)
  • Strategic recommendations in key business segments based on the market estimations
  • Competitive landscaping mapping the key common trends
  • Company profiling with detailed strategies, financials, and recent developments
  • Supply chain trends mapping the latest technological advancements

Free Customization Offerings:

All the customers of this report will be entitled to receive one of the following free customization options:

  • Company Profiling
    • Comprehensive profiling of additional market players (up to 3)
    • SWOT Analysis of key players (up to 3)
  • Regional Segmentation
    • Market estimations, Forecasts and CAGR of any prominent country as per the client's interest (Note: Depends on feasibility check)
  • Competitive Benchmarking
    • Benchmarking of key players based on product portfolio, geographical presence, and strategic alliances

Table of Contents

1 Executive Summary

2 Preface

  • 2.1 Abstract
  • 2.2 Stake Holders
  • 2.3 Research Scope
  • 2.4 Research Methodology
    • 2.4.1 Data Mining
    • 2.4.2 Data Analysis
    • 2.4.3 Data Validation
    • 2.4.4 Research Approach
  • 2.5 Research Sources
    • 2.5.1 Primary Research Sources
    • 2.5.2 Secondary Research Sources
    • 2.5.3 Assumptions

3 Market Trend Analysis

  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Drivers
  • 3.3 Restraints
  • 3.4 Opportunities
  • 3.5 Threats
  • 3.6 Application Analysis
  • 3.7 Emerging Markets
  • 3.8 Impact of Covid-19

4 Porters Five Force Analysis

  • 4.1 Bargaining power of suppliers
  • 4.2 Bargaining power of buyers
  • 4.3 Threat of substitutes
  • 4.4 Threat of new entrants
  • 4.5 Competitive rivalry

5 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market, By Wrap Type

  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Full Wraps
  • 5.3 Interior Wraps
  • 5.4 Partial Wraps
  • 5.5 Window Wraps
  • 5.6 Roof & Hood Wraps

6 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market, By Material

  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Cast Vinyl
  • 6.3 Chrome Films
  • 6.4 Calendared Vinyl
  • 6.5 Paint Protection Films
  • 6.6 Carbon Fiber Films

7 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market, By Vehicle Type

  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Passenger Cars
  • 7.3 Heavy Commercial Vehicles
  • 7.4 Light Commercial Vehicles
  • 7.5 Motorcycles

8 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market, By Finish

  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Gloss
  • 8.3 Textured
  • 8.4 Matte
  • 8.5 Metallic
  • 8.6 Satin

9 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market, By Application

  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 Advertising & Branding
  • 9.3 Fleet Branding
  • 9.4 Personal Customization
  • 9.5 Protection & Preservation

10 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market, By Geography

  • 10.1 Introduction
  • 10.2 North America
    • 10.2.1 US
    • 10.2.2 Canada
    • 10.2.3 Mexico
  • 10.3 Europe
    • 10.3.1 Germany
    • 10.3.2 UK
    • 10.3.3 Italy
    • 10.3.4 France
    • 10.3.5 Spain
    • 10.3.6 Rest of Europe
  • 10.4 Asia Pacific
    • 10.4.1 Japan
    • 10.4.2 China
    • 10.4.3 India
    • 10.4.4 Australia
    • 10.4.5 New Zealand
    • 10.4.6 South Korea
    • 10.4.7 Rest of Asia Pacific
  • 10.5 South America
    • 10.5.1 Argentina
    • 10.5.2 Brazil
    • 10.5.3 Chile
    • 10.5.4 Rest of South America
  • 10.6 Middle East & Africa
    • 10.6.1 Saudi Arabia
    • 10.6.2 UAE
    • 10.6.3 Qatar
    • 10.6.4 South Africa
    • 10.6.5 Rest of Middle East & Africa

11 Key Developments

  • 11.1 Agreements, Partnerships, Collaborations and Joint Ventures
  • 11.2 Acquisitions & Mergers
  • 11.3 New Product Launch
  • 11.4 Expansions
  • 11.5 Other Key Strategies

12 Company Profiling

  • 12.1 3M Company
  • 12.2 JMR Graphics Inc.
  • 12.3 Avery Dennison Corporation
  • 12.4 APA S.p.A.
  • 12.5 Orafol Group
  • 12.6 Spandex AG
  • 12.7 Hexis S.A.
  • 12.8 Metamark
  • 12.9 Arlon Graphics LLC
  • 12.10 Guangzhou Carbins Film Co., Ltd.
  • 12.11 Ritrama S.p.A.
  • 12.12 TeckWrap
  • 12.13 KPMF
  • 12.14 Inozetek
  • 12.15 Vvivid Vinyl

List of Tables

  • Table 1 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Region (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 2 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Wrap Type (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 3 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Full Wraps (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 4 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Interior Wraps (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 5 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Partial Wraps (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 6 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Window Wraps (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 7 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Roof & Hood Wraps (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 8 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Material (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 9 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Cast Vinyl (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 10 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Chrome Films (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 11 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Calendared Vinyl (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 12 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Paint Protection Films (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 13 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Carbon Fiber Films (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 14 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Vehicle Type (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 15 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Passenger Cars (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 16 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Heavy Commercial Vehicles (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 17 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Light Commercial Vehicles (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 18 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Motorcycles (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 19 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Finish (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 20 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Gloss (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 21 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Textured (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 22 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Matte (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 23 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Metallic (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 24 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Satin (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 25 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Application (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 26 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Advertising & Branding (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 27 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Fleet Branding (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 28 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Personal Customization (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 29 Global Vehicle Wrap & Customization Market Outlook, By Protection & Preservation (2024-2032) ($MN)

Note: Tables for North America, Europe, APAC, South America, and Middle East & Africa Regions are also represented in the same manner as above.