Product Code: TIPRE00017867
The milk fat fractions market size was valued at US$ 16.24 billion and is expected to reach US$ 26.41 billion by 2034; it is estimated to register a CAGR of 5.6% from 2026 to 2034.
The rising demand for high-value dairy ingredients for food, beverage, and nutraceutical sectors and the preference of consumers for premium & functional dairy products are the key factors driving the milk fat fraction market. The milk fat fractions like butterfat concentrates, specialized lipids, etc., are popular in bakery, confectionery, infant nutrition, and dairy formulation industry for their improved texture, flavor, and nutritional benefits. Expanding applications in health and clean label products, awareness of the natural fats, and progress in dairy processing technologies, such as fractionation and membrane separation, are further driving the milk fat fractions market growth.
The milk fat fractions market analysis has been performed by considering the following segments: type, form, and application. By type, the market is divided into organic and conventional. The conventional segment accounted for the largest milk fat fractions market share in 2025. The traditional milk fat fractions market is supported by the existence of the dairy supply chain, a wide processing capacity, and applications in the different food industries. The conventional milk fat fractions are derived from traditional dairy streams, such as butter oil, anhydrous milk fat, butter fractions, and other dairy lipid fractions. They are used for nutritional and functional properties in bakery products, confectionery, dairy foods, infant nutrition, and processed food applications. A well-established regional dairy processing industry and consistent availability of raw materials enable manufacturers to develop standardized formulations suited to a wide range of applications. Conventional fat ingredients derived from milk are also benefiting from the recent advances in fat separation and fractionation technologies for their quality, functionality, and application potential.
The milk fat fractions market is segmented into five main regions-North America, Europe, Asia Pacific, the Middle East & Africa, and South & Central America. Asia Pacific is expected to register steady growth in the global milk fat fractions market from 2026 to 2034. The milk fat fractions market in the Asia Pacific is expanding due to rising disposable incomes, urbanization, changing dietary preferences, and increasing awareness of premium dairy ingredients and functional food products. China, India, Japan, South Korea, and Australia are contributing to regional demand through different growth pathways. China is a major market supported by increasing consumption of premium dairy products, functional foods, and specialty dairy ingredients. India is witnessing greater adoption of value-added dairy products as consumers become more aware of quality, nutrition, and health-focused diets. Japan and South Korea contribute through demand for advanced food formulations, specialty ingredients, and functional applications.
Some of the key players operating in the global milk fat fractions market include Flechard, Fonterra Co-Operative Group Ltd, Royal FrieslandCampina NV, Uelzena eG, California Dairies, Inc, Royal VBF, Kuber Dairy Group, Smriti Products, Hiroland, and Lactalis. Players operating in the milk fat fractions market focus on providing high-quality products to fulfill customer demand. Also, they are focusing on launching new and high-quality products for their customers.
The overall global milk fat fractions market size has been derived using both primary and secondary sources. To begin the research process, exhaustive secondary research has been conducted using internal and external sources to obtain qualitative and quantitative information related to the milk fat fractions market. Also, multiple primary interviews have been conducted with industry participants to validate the data and gain more analytical insights into the topic. The participants of this process include industry experts such as VPs, business development managers, market intelligence managers, and national sales managers, along with external consultants such as valuation experts, research analysts, and key opinion leaders-specializing in the milk fat fractions market.
Table Of Contents
1. Executive Summary
- 1.1 Analyst Market Outlook
- 1.2 Market Attractiveness
2. Milk Fat Fractions Market Landscape
- 2.1 Overview
- 2.2 Value Chain Analysis
- 2.2.1 Raw Material Components
- 2.2.2 Manufacturing Process/Technology
- 2.2.3 Distribution Landscape
- 2.2.4 Application
- 2.2.5 Level of Integration
- 2.3 Supply Chain Analysis
- 2.3.1 List of Manufacturers/Suppliers
- 2.3.2 List of Potential Customers (Upto 50)
- 2.4 Porter's Five Force Analysis
- 2.4.1 Threat of New Entrants:
- 2.4.2 Bargaining Power of Suppliers
- 2.4.3 Bargaining Power of Buyers
- 2.4.4 Threat of Substitutes
- 2.4.5 Competitive Rivalry
- 2.5 PEST Analysis
- 2.5.1 Political Factors: Food Safety Standards and Dairy Industry Regulations
- 2.5.2 Economic Factors: Dairy Supply Dynamics and Premium Ingredient Demand
- 2.5.3 Social Factors: Nutrition Awareness and Functional Food Trends
- 2.5.4 Technological Factors - Advanced Fractionation and Processing Innovation
- 2.6 Import-Export Analysis for Key Countries (040590 Fats and oils derived from milk, and dehydrated butter and ghee (excl. natural butter, recombined butter and whey butter))
- 2.6.1 Export Analysis for Key Countries
- 2.6.2 Import Analysis for Key Countries
- 2.7 Impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI)
- 2.8 Product or Technology Roadmap
- 2.9 Sustainability and ESG Trends
- 2.10 Patent Analysis
- 2.11 Regulatory Framework
3. Competitive Landscape
- 3.1 Company Benchmarking by Key Players
- 3.2 Market Share Analysis, 2025 - By Key Players
- 3.3 Market Concentration
4. Milk Fat Fractions Market - Key Industry Dynamics
- 4.1 Market Drivers
- 4.1.1 Rising Demand for Premium Dairy and Functional Food Products
- 4.1.2 Increasing Expansion of the Functional Food and Beverage Industry
- 4.1.3 Growing Sports Nutrition and Active Lifestyle Trends
- 4.2 Market Restraints
- 4.2.1 High Production and Processing Costs
- 4.2.2 Volatility in Raw Milk Supply and Pricing
- 4.2.3 Stringent Regulatory and Quality Compliance Requirements
- 4.3 Market Opportunities
- 4.3.1 Strategic Partnerships Between Dairy Processors and Food Companies
- 4.3.2 Technological Advancements in Fractionation Processes
- 4.3.3 Increasing Use in Infant Nutrition Products
- 4.4 Future Trends
- 4.4.1 Rising Demand for Clean-Label Dairy Fat Ingredients
- 4.4.2 Increasing Utilization in Customized Dairy Fat Formulations
- 4.4.3 Growth of Bioactive and Specialty Milk Fat Ingredients
- 4.5 Impact of Drivers and Restraints
5. Milk Fat Fractions Market - Global Market Analysis
- 5.1 Milk Fat Fractions Market Volume (Kilo Tons), 2021-2034
- 5.2 Milk Fat Fractions Market Volume Forecast and Analysis (Kilo Tons)
- 5.3 Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecast (US$ Million), 2021-2034
- 5.4 Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue Forecast and Analysis (US$ Million)
6. Milk Fat Fractions Market Volume and Revenue Analysis - Type
- 6.1 Milk Fat Fractions Market Forecasts and Analysis by Type
- 6.1.1 Organic
- 6.1.1.1 Overview
- 6.1.1.2 Organic: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Volume and Forecast, 2021 - 2034 (Kilo Tons)
- 6.1.1.3 Organic: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Revenue, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 6.1.2 Conventional
- 6.1.2.1 Overview
- 6.1.2.2 Conventional: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Volume and Forecast, 2021 - 2034 (Kilo Tons)
- 6.1.2.3 Conventional: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Revenue, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
7. MILK Fat Fractions Market Volume and Revenue Analysis - Form
- 7.1 Milk Fat Fractions Market Forecasts and Analysis by Form
- 7.1.1 Texturized
- 7.1.1.1 Overview
- 7.1.1.2 Texturized: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Volume and Forecast, 2021 - 2034 (Kilo Tons)
- 7.1.1.3 Texturized: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Revenue, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 7.1.2 Concentrated
- 7.1.2.1 Overview
- 7.1.2.2 Concentrated: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Volume and Forecast, 2021 - 2034 (Kilo Tons)
- 7.1.2.3 Concentrated: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Revenue, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 7.1.3 Isolated
- 7.1.3.1 Overview
- 7.1.3.2 Isolated: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Volume and Forecast, 2021 - 2034 (Kilo Tons)
- 7.1.3.3 Isolated: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Revenue, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
8. Milk Fat Fractions Market Volume and Revenue Analysis - Application
- 8.1 Milk Fat Fractions Market Forecasts and Analysis by Application
- 8.1.1 Bakery and Confectionery
- 8.1.1.1 Overview
- 8.1.1.2 Bakery and Confectionery: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Volume and Forecast, 2021 - 2034 (Kilo Tons)
- 8.1.1.3 Bakery and Confectionery: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Revenue, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 8.1.2 Infant Formulas
- 8.1.2.1 Overview
- 8.1.2.2 Infant Formulas: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Volume and Forecast, 2021 - 2034 (Kilo Tons)
- 8.1.2.3 Infant Formulas: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Revenue, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 8.1.3 Sports Nutrition
- 8.1.3.1 Overview
- 8.1.3.2 Sports Nutrition: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Volume and Forecast, 2021 - 2034 (Kilo Tons)
- 8.1.3.3 Sports Nutrition: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Revenue, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 8.1.4 Nutraceuticals
- 8.1.4.1 Overview
- 8.1.4.2 Nutraceuticals: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Volume and Forecast, 2021 - 2034 (Kilo Tons)
- 8.1.4.3 Nutraceuticals: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Revenue, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 8.1.5 Others
- 8.1.5.1 Overview
- 8.1.5.2 Others: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Volume and Forecast, 2021 - 2034 (Kilo Tons)
- 8.1.5.3 Others: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Revenue, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
9. Milk Fat Fractions Market - Geographical Analysis
- 9.1 North America
- 9.1.1 North America Milk Fat Fractions Market Overview
- 9.1.2 North America: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Volume and Forecast, 2021-2034 (Kilo Tons)
- 9.1.3 North America: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.1.4 North America: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.1.4.1 Type
- 9.1.4.2 Form
- 9.1.4.3 Application
- 9.1.5 North America: Milk Fat Fractions Market Breakdown by Countries
- 9.1.5.1 United States Market
- 9.1.5.1.1 United States: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.1.5.1.2 United States: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.1.5.1.2.1 Type
- 9.1.5.1.2.2 Form
- 9.1.5.1.2.3 Application
- 9.1.5.2 Canada Market
- 9.1.5.2.1 Canada: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.1.5.2.2 Canada: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.1.5.2.2.1 Type
- 9.1.5.2.2.2 Form
- 9.1.5.2.2.3 Application
- 9.1.5.3 Mexico Market
- 9.1.5.3.1 Mexico: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.1.5.3.2 Mexico: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.1.5.3.2.1 Type
- 9.1.5.3.2.2 Form
- 9.1.5.3.2.3 Application
- 9.2 Europe
- 9.2.1 Europe Milk Fat Fractions Market Overview
- 9.2.2 Europe: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Volume and Forecast, 2021-2034 (Kilo Tons)
- 9.2.3 Europe: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.2.4 Europe: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.2.4.1 Type
- 9.2.4.2 Form
- 9.2.4.3 Application
- 9.2.5 Europe: Milk Fat Fractions Market Breakdown by Countries
- 9.2.5.1 Germany Market
- 9.2.5.1.1 Germany: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.2.5.1.2 Germany: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.2.5.1.2.1 Type
- 9.2.5.1.2.2 Form
- 9.2.5.1.2.3 Application
- 9.2.5.2 France Market
- 9.2.5.2.1 France: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.2.5.2.2 France: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.2.5.2.2.1 Type
- 9.2.5.2.2.2 Form
- 9.2.5.2.2.3 Application
- 9.2.5.3 Italy Market
- 9.2.5.3.1 Italy: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.2.5.3.2 Italy: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.2.5.3.2.1 Type
- 9.2.5.3.2.2 Form
- 9.2.5.3.2.3 Application
- 9.2.5.4 United Kingdom Market
- 9.2.5.4.1 United Kingdom: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.2.5.4.2 United Kingdom: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.2.5.4.2.1 Type
- 9.2.5.4.2.2 Form
- 9.2.5.4.2.3 Application
- 9.2.5.5 Russia Market
- 9.2.5.5.1 Russia: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.2.5.5.2 Russia: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.2.5.5.2.1 Type
- 9.2.5.5.2.2 Form
- 9.2.5.5.2.3 Application
- 9.2.5.6 Rest of Europe Market
- 9.2.5.6.1 Rest of Europe: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.2.5.6.2 Rest of Europe: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.2.5.6.2.1 Type
- 9.2.5.6.2.2 Form
- 9.2.5.6.2.3 Application
- 9.3 Asia Pacific
- 9.3.1 Asia Pacific Milk Fat Fractions Market Overview
- 9.3.2 Asia Pacific: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Volume and Forecast, 2021-2034 (Kilo Tons)
- 9.3.3 Asia Pacific: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.3.4 Asia Pacific: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.3.4.1 Type
- 9.3.4.2 Form
- 9.3.4.3 Application
- 9.3.5 Asia Pacific: Milk Fat Fractions Market Breakdown by Countries
- 9.3.5.1 Australia Market
- 9.3.5.1.1 Australia: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.3.5.1.2 Australia: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.3.5.1.2.1 Type
- 9.3.5.1.2.2 Form
- 9.3.5.1.2.3 Application
- 9.3.5.2 China Market
- 9.3.5.2.1 China: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.3.5.2.2 China: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.3.5.2.2.1 Type
- 9.3.5.2.2.2 Form
- 9.3.5.2.2.3 Application
- 9.3.5.3 India Market
- 9.3.5.3.1 India: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.3.5.3.2 India: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.3.5.3.2.1 Type
- 9.3.5.3.2.2 Form
- 9.3.5.3.2.3 Application
- 9.3.5.4 Japan Market
- 9.3.5.4.1 Japan: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.3.5.4.2 Japan: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.3.5.4.2.1 Type
- 9.3.5.4.2.2 Form
- 9.3.5.4.2.3 Application
- 9.3.5.5 Rest of Asia Pacific Market
- 9.3.5.5.1 Rest of Asia Pacific: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.3.5.5.2 Rest of Asia Pacific: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.3.5.5.2.1 Type
- 9.3.5.5.2.2 Form
- 9.3.5.5.2.3 Application
- 9.4 Middle East and Africa
- 9.4.1 Middle East and Africa Milk Fat Fractions Market Overview
- 9.4.2 Middle East and Africa: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Volume and Forecast, 2021-2034 (Kilo Tons)
- 9.4.3 Middle East and Africa: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.4.4 Middle East and Africa: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.4.4.1 Type
- 9.4.4.2 Form
- 9.4.4.3 Application
- 9.4.5 Middle East and Africa: Milk Fat Fractions Market Breakdown by Countries
- 9.4.5.1 South Africa Market
- 9.4.5.1.1 South Africa: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.4.5.1.2 South Africa: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.4.5.1.2.1 Type
- 9.4.5.1.2.2 Form
- 9.4.5.1.2.3 Application
- 9.4.5.2 Saudi Arabia Market
- 9.4.5.2.1 Saudi Arabia: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.4.5.2.2 Saudi Arabia: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.4.5.2.2.1 Type
- 9.4.5.2.2.2 Form
- 9.4.5.2.2.3 Application
- 9.4.5.3 United Arab Emirates Market
- 9.4.5.3.1 United Arab Emirates: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.4.5.3.2 United Arab Emirates: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.4.5.3.2.1 Type
- 9.4.5.3.2.2 Form
- 9.4.5.3.2.3 Application
- 9.4.5.4 Rest of Middle East and Africa Market
- 9.4.5.4.1 Rest of Middle East and Africa: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.4.5.4.2 Rest of Middle East and Africa: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.4.5.4.2.1 Type
- 9.4.5.4.2.2 Form
- 9.4.5.4.2.3 Application
- 9.5 South and Central America
- 9.5.1 South and Central America Milk Fat Fractions Market Overview
- 9.5.2 South and Central America: Milk Fat Fractions Market - Volume and Forecast, 2021-2034 (Kilo Tons)
- 9.5.3 South and Central America: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.5.4 South and Central America: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.5.4.1 Type
- 9.5.4.2 Form
- 9.5.4.3 Application
- 9.5.5 South and Central America: Milk Fat Fractions Market Breakdown by Countries
- 9.5.5.1 Brazil Market
- 9.5.5.1.1 Brazil: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.5.5.1.2 Brazil: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.5.5.1.2.1 Type
- 9.5.5.1.2.2 Form
- 9.5.5.1.2.3 Application
- 9.5.5.2 Argentina Market
- 9.5.5.2.1 Argentina: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.5.5.2.2 Argentina: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.5.5.2.2.1 Type
- 9.5.5.2.2.2 Form
- 9.5.5.2.2.3 Application
- 9.5.5.3 Rest of South and Central America Market
- 9.5.5.3.1 Rest of South and Central America: Milk Fat Fractions Market Revenue and Forecasts, 2021-2034 (US$ Million)
- 9.5.5.3.2 Rest of South and Central America: Milk Fat Fractions Market - By Segmentation
- 9.5.5.3.2.1 Type
- 9.5.5.3.2.2 Form
- 9.5.5.3.2.3 Application
10. Milk Fat Fractions Market Industry Landscape
11. Milk Fat Fractions Market - Key Company Profiles
- 11.1 Flechard
- 11.1.1 Key Facts
- 11.1.2 Business Description
- 11.1.3 Products and Services
- 11.1.4 Financial Overview
- 11.1.5 SWOT Analysis
- 11.1.6 Key Developments
- 11.2 Fonterra Cooperative Group Ltd
- 11.2.1 Key Facts
- 11.2.2 Business Description
- 11.2.3 Products and Services
- 11.2.4 Financial Overview
- 11.2.5 SWOT Analysis
- 11.2.6 Key Developments
- 11.3 Royal FrieslandCampina NV
- 11.3.1 Key Facts
- 11.3.2 Business Description
- 11.3.3 Products and Services
- 11.3.4 Financial Overview
- 11.3.5 SWOT Analysis
- 11.3.6 Key Developments
- 11.4 Uelzena eG
- 11.4.1 Key Facts
- 11.4.2 Business Description
- 11.4.3 Products and Services
- 11.4.4 Financial Overview
- 11.4.5 SWOT Analysis
- 11.4.6 Key Developments
- 11.5 Royal VBF
- 11.5.1 Key Facts
- 11.5.2 Business Description
- 11.5.3 Products and Services
- 11.5.4 Financial Overview
- 11.5.5 SWOT Analysis
- 11.5.6 Key Developments
- 11.6 California Dairies, Inc
- 11.6.1 Key Facts
- 11.6.2 Business Description
- 11.6.3 Products and Services
- 11.6.4 Financial Overview
- 11.6.5 SWOT Analysis
- 11.6.6 Key Developments
- 11.7 Kuber Dairy Group
- 11.7.1 Key Facts
- 11.7.2 Business Description
- 11.7.3 Products and Services
- 11.7.4 Financial Overview
- 11.7.5 SWOT Analysis
- 11.7.6 Key Developments
- 11.8 Smriti Products
- 11.8.1 Key Facts
- 11.8.2 Business Description
- 11.8.3 Products and Services
- 11.8.4 Financial Overview
- 11.8.5 SWOT Analysis
- 11.8.6 Key Developments
- 11.9 Hiroland
- 11.9.1 Key Facts
- 11.9.2 Business Description
- 11.9.3 Products and Services
- 11.9.4 Financial Overview
- 11.9.5 SWOT Analysis
- 11.9.6 Key Developments
- 11.10 Lactalis
- 11.10.1 Key Facts
- 11.10.2 Business Description
- 11.10.3 Products and Services
- 11.10.4 Financial Overview
- 11.10.5 SWOT Analysis
- 11.10.6 Key Developments
12. Appendix
- 12.1 Glossary
- 12.2 Research Methodology and Approach
- 12.2.1 Secondary Research
- 12.2.2 Primary Research
- 12.2.3 Market Estimation Approach
- 12.2.3.1 Supply Side Analysis
- 12.2.3.2 Demand Side Analysis
- 12.2.4 Research Assumptions and Limitations
- 12.2.5 Currency Conversion
- 12.3 About The Insight Partners
- 12.4 Market Intelligence Cloud