2031年北美電動車熱泵系統市場預測 - 區域分析 - 依推進類型、零件和車輛類型
市場調查報告書
商品編碼
1765013

2031年北美電動車熱泵系統市場預測 - 區域分析 - 依推進類型、零件和車輛類型

North America Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Forecast to 2031 - Regional Analysis - by Propulsion Type, Component, and Vehicle Type

出版日期: | 出版商: The Insight Partners | 英文 124 Pages | 訂單完成後即時交付

價格

2023 年北美電動車熱泵系統市場價值為 1.4767 億美元,預計到 2031 年將達到 6.1128 億美元;預計 2023 年至 2031 年的複合年成長率為 19.4%。

節能暖氣系統需求成長,擴大續航里程,推動北美電動車熱泵系統市場發展

流行的電動車 (EV) 大多使用鋰離子電池為其電動馬達供電。這類電池的理想工作溫度範圍似乎在 50°F 到 110°F 之間,一些出版商一致認為最佳溫度範圍為 70°F。在零下溫度下,鋰離子電池無法正常儲能,導致性能不佳。在寒冷天氣下,一些電動車的續航里程會從可控的 10% 下降到約 36%。續航里程的損失不僅是鋰離子電池的問題,還取決於儲能的利用率。此外,從電池中提取的能量用於加熱電阻器,然後吹過電阻器以保持車內溫暖,這會導致電池性能下降。因此,熱泵在為電池加熱方面發揮著重要作用。熱泵比單純從電池中獲取能量更有效地加熱車內。熱泵系統本身並非增程器,而是一種提高電動車效率並在零下溫度下減少續航里程損失的工具。此外,在寒冷天氣條件下,汽車啟動困難,可用功率也會降低。由於這些挑戰,對熱泵系統的需求不斷成長。熱泵系統有助於保持理想的電池溫度,並透過節省在寒冷天氣條件下加熱乘客艙所需的能量來延長續航里程。因此,對節能加熱系統的需求成長,以延長續航里程,推動了電動車熱泵系統市場的成長。

北美電動汽車熱泵系統市場概覽

北美是電動車 (EV) 的主要採用地區之一,這得益於其技術進步以及福特汽車公司、特斯拉公司、通用汽車公司和 Lucid 集團等主要電動車市場參與者的參與。這些參與者透過各種策略措施推動汽車產業的發展,例如推出新產品、建立合作夥伴關係以及透過研發和合作來改善現有產品的功能。隨著汽車產量的上升,北美汽車市場正呈現正面動能。 2023 年,美國新型電動輕型車銷量約為 140 萬輛,較 2022 年的近 100 萬輛有所成長,銷售佔有率約為 9%。隨著汽車產業正快速向電氣化轉型,這些資料顯示北美是電動車熱泵系統的利潤豐厚市場之一。消費者日益增強的環保意識是推動北美電動車普及的主要因素之一。由於政府的激勵措施和稅收優惠,近年來電動車的價格略有下降。因此,電動車價格的不斷下降成為北美電動車熱泵系統市場成長的主要驅動力。汽車產業的公司正致力於透過擴大北美的生產設施來加強其汽車電氣化議程。 2023 年,豐田宣布將從 2025 年開始在肯塔基州豐田工廠組裝一款全新的三排電池電動 SUV。這款純電動車預計將由豐田北卡羅來納工廠生產的電池供電。北卡羅來納州的新電池廠正在建設中,預計將獲得 21 億美元的額外投資,以支持該公司實現碳中和的計畫。因此,電動車生產的進步推動了該地區對電動車熱泵系統的需求。

北美電動車熱泵系統市場收入及預測(2031年)(百萬美元)

北美電動汽車熱泵系統市場細分

北美電動車熱泵系統市場分為推進類型、組件、車輛類型和國家。

根據推進類型,北美電動車熱泵系統市場分為純電動車 (BEV)、混合動力電動車 (HEV) 和插電式混合動力電動車 (PHEV)。純電動車 (BEV) 市場在 2023 年佔據了最大的市場佔有率。

就組件而言,北美電動車熱泵系統市場分為蒸發器、冷凝器、壓縮機和其他零件。壓縮機在2023年佔據了最大的市場佔有率。

依車型分類,北美電動車熱泵系統市場分為乘用車和商用車。 2023年,乘用車市場佔了較大的市佔率。

依國家/地區分類,北美電動車熱泵系統市場分為美國、加拿大和墨西哥。 2023年,美國佔據了北美電動車熱泵系統市場佔有率的主導地位。

Denso Corp、Modine Manufacturing Co、Hanon Systems、Mahle GmbH、Rheinmetall AG、Valeo SE、三菱重工有限公司、TitanX Holding AB、SANDEN Corp 和 Highly Marelli Holdings Co., Ltd. 是北美電動車熱泵系統市場的一些領先公司。

目錄

第1章:簡介

第2章:執行摘要

  • 關鍵見解
  • 市場吸引力

第3章:研究方法

  • 二次研究
  • 初步研究
    • 假設表述:
    • 宏觀經濟因素分析:
    • 顯影基數:
    • 數據三角測量:
    • 國家級資料:

第4章:北美電動車熱泵系統市場格局

  • 概述
  • 生態系分析
    • 原料和零件供應商
    • 電動汽車熱泵系統製造商
    • 最終用戶
    • 價值鏈中的供應商列表

第5章:北美電動車熱泵系統市場-關鍵市場動態

  • 市場促進因素
    • 節能暖氣系統需求不斷成長,延長行駛里程
    • 政府推動汽車電氣化的舉措
  • 市場限制
    • 熱泵系統初始成本高
  • 市場機會
    • 電動汽車熱泵系統的關鍵策略發展
  • 未來趨勢
    • 電動車在能源轉型中的作用
  • 促進因素和限制因素的影響:

第6章:電動車熱泵系統市場-北美分析

  • 北美電動汽車熱泵系統市場概覽
  • 2021-2031年電動車熱泵系統市場收入
  • 電動汽車熱泵系統市場預測分析

第7章:北美電動車熱泵系統市場分析-依推進類型

  • 純電動車
  • 油電混合車
  • 插電式混合動力

第 8 章:北美電動車熱泵系統市場分析 - 按組件

  • 蒸發器
  • 冷凝器
  • 壓縮機
  • 其他

第9章:北美電動車熱泵系統市場分析-依車型

  • 搭乘用車
  • 商用車

第10章:北美電動車熱泵系統市場-國家分析

  • 北美洲
    • 美國
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥

第 11 章:競爭格局

  • 公司定位與集中度

第 12 章:產業格局

  • 概述
  • 市場計劃
  • 產品開發

第13章:公司簡介

  • Denso Corp
  • Modine Manufacturing Co
  • Hanon Systems
  • Mahle GmbH
  • Rheinmetall AG
  • Valeo SE
  • Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd
  • TitanX Holding AB
  • SANDEN Corp
  • Highly Marelli Holdings Co., Ltd.

第 14 章:附錄

Product Code: BMIRE00031524

The North America electric vehicle heat pump systems market was valued at US$ 147.67 million in 2023 and is expected to reach US$ 611.28 million by 2031; it is estimated to register a CAGR of 19.4% from 2023 to 2031.

Increasing Demand for Energy-Efficient Heating Systems to Expand Driving Range Fuels North America Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market

Popular electric vehicles (EVs) largely use lithium-ion batteries to power their electric motors. These types of batteries have an ideal operating temperature range that appears to be anywhere between 50°F and 110°F, with a few publishers agreeing on an optimal temperature range of 70°F. At subzero temperatures, lithium-ion batteries do not store energy appropriately, resulting in poor performance. The range of a few electric vehicles drops from a manageable 10% to ~36% in freezing weather. This loss of range is not solely due to the lithium-ion batteries but also depends on the utilization of stored energy. Further, the amount of energy extracted from batteries to heat a resistor and then blow air through it to keep the interior of the vehicle warm has resulted in deterioration of the battery. Hence, heat pumps are important in providing heating to the battery. Heat pumps warm the interior of the car more efficiently than simply drawing energy from the batteries. Heat pump systems are not range extenders themselves but rather a tool that allows electric vehicles to be more efficient and not lose as many ranges in subzero temperatures. Also, in cold weather conditions, it is not easy to start the car and reduce the available power. Owing to such challenges, there is a rise in demand for heat pump systems, which help keep the ideal battery temperature and increase the range by saving the energy required to warm the passenger compartment in cold weather conditions. Therefore, the rise in demand for energy-efficient heating systems to expand the driving range fuels the electric vehicle heat pump system market growth.

North America Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Overview

North America is one of the primary adopters of electric vehicles (EVs), owing to the adoption of technological advancements and the presence of key electric vehicle market players such as Ford Motor Company, Tesla Inc., The General Motors Company, and Lucid Group Inc. These players drive the automotive industry's development through various strategic initiatives such as new introduction, partnerships, and advancing features of existing products through research and development and collaborations. The North American automotive market is showing a positive sign with the rising automotive production. In 2023, sales of new electric light-duty vehicles in the US reached about ~1.4 million, which increased from nearly 1 million in 2022, resulting in a sales share of about 9%. As the automotive industry is witnessing a rapid transition toward electrification, such data shows that North America is one of the lucrative markets for electric vehicle heat pump systems. The mounting awareness of environmental protection among consumers is one of the leading considerations steering EV adoption in North America. Owing to government incentives and tax benefits, the prices of EVs have dropped slightly in recent years. Thus, the rising affordability of EVs is acting as a major driver for the electric vehicle heat pump systems market growth in North America. Companies performing in the automotive sector are focusing on strengthening their vehicle electrification agenda by expanding production facilities across North America. In 2023, Toyota announced for assembly of an all-new, three-row, battery electric SUV at Toyota Kentucky starting in 2025. The BEV is projected to be powered by batteries fabricated by Toyota North Carolina. The new battery plant in North Carolina is under construction and is anticipated to secure an additional US$ 2.1 billion investment to support the company's initiative toward carbon neutrality. Thus, the advancements in EV production propel the demand for electric vehicle heat pump systems in the region.

North America Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)

North America Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Segmentation

The North America electric vehicle heat pump systems market is categorized into propulsion type, component, vehicle type, and country.

Based on propulsion type, the North America electric vehicle heat pump systems market is categorized into BEV, HEV, and PHEV. The BEV segment held the largest market share in 2023.

In terms of component, the North America electric vehicle heat pump systems market is categorized into evaporator, condenser, compressors, and others. The compressors segment held the largest market share in 2023.

By vehicle type, the North America electric vehicle heat pump systems market is bifurcated into passenger vehicle and commercial vehicle. The passenger vehicle segment held a larger market share in 2023.

By country, the North America electric vehicle heat pump systems market is segmented into the US, Canada, and Mexico. The US dominated the North America electric vehicle heat pump systems market share in 2023.

Denso Corp, Modine Manufacturing Co, Hanon Systems, Mahle GmbH, Rheinmetall AG, Valeo SE, Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd, TitanX Holding AB, SANDEN Corp, and Highly Marelli Holdings Co., Ltd. are some of the leading companies operating in the North America electric vehicle heat pump systems market.

Table Of Contents

1. Introduction

  • 1.1 The Insight Partners Research Report Guidance
  • 1.2 Market Segmentation

2. Executive Summary

  • 2.1 Key Insights
  • 2.2 Market Attractiveness

3. Research Methodology

  • 3.1 Secondary Research
  • 3.2 Primary Research
    • 3.2.1 Hypothesis formulation:
    • 3.2.2 Macro-economic factor analysis:
    • 3.2.1 Developing base number:
    • 3.2.2 Data Triangulation:
    • 3.2.3 Country level data:

4. North America Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Landscape

  • 4.1 Overview
  • 4.2 Ecosystem Analysis
    • 4.2.1 Raw Material and Component Suppliers
    • 4.2.2 Electric Vehicle Heat Pump System Manufacturers
    • 4.2.3 End User
    • 4.2.4 List of Vendors in the Value Chain

5. North America Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Key Market Dynamics

  • 5.1 Market Drivers
    • 5.1.1 Increasing Demand for Energy-Efficient Heating Systems to Expand Driving Range
    • 5.1.2 Government Initiatives toward Vehicle Electrification
  • 5.2 Market Restraints
    • 5.2.1 High Initial Cost of Heat Pump Systems
  • 5.3 Market Opportunities
    • 5.3.1 Key Strategic Developments in EV Heat Pump Systems
  • 5.4 Future Trends
    • 5.4.1 Role of Electric Vehicles in Energy Transition
  • 5.5 Impact of Drivers and Restraints:

6. Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - North America Analysis

  • 6.1 North America Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Overview
  • 6.2 Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Revenue (US$ Million), 2021-2031
  • 6.3 Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Forecast Analysis

7. North America Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Analysis - by Propulsion Type

  • 7.1 BEV
    • 7.1.1 Overview
    • 7.1.2 BEV: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • 7.2 HEV
    • 7.2.1 Overview
    • 7.2.2 HEV: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • 7.3 PHEV
    • 7.3.1 Overview
    • 7.3.2 PHEV: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)

8. North America Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Analysis - by Component

  • 8.1 Evaporator
    • 8.1.1 Overview
    • 8.1.2 Evaporator: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • 8.2 Condenser
    • 8.2.1 Overview
    • 8.2.2 Condenser: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • 8.3 Compressors
    • 8.3.1 Overview
    • 8.3.2 Compressors: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • 8.4 Others
    • 8.4.1 Overview
    • 8.4.2 Others: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)

9. North America Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Analysis - by Vehicle Type

  • 9.1 Passenger Vehicle
    • 9.1.1 Overview
    • 9.1.2 Passenger Vehicle: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • 9.2 Commercial Vehicle
    • 9.2.1 Overview
    • 9.2.2 Commercial Vehicle: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)

10. North America Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Country Analysis

  • 10.1 North America
    • 10.1.1 North America: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Breakdown, by Key Country, 2023 and 2031 (%)
      • 10.1.1.1 North America: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast Analysis - by Country
      • 10.1.1.2 United States: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
        • 10.1.1.2.1 United States: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Breakdown, by Propulsion Type
        • 10.1.1.2.2 United States: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Breakdown, by Component
        • 10.1.1.2.3 United States: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Breakdown, by Vehicle Type
      • 10.1.1.3 Canada: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
        • 10.1.1.3.1 Canada: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Breakdown, by Propulsion Type
        • 10.1.1.3.2 Canada: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Breakdown, by Component
        • 10.1.1.3.3 Canada: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Breakdown, by Vehicle Type
      • 10.1.1.4 Mexico: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
        • 10.1.1.4.1 Mexico: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Breakdown, by Propulsion Type
        • 10.1.1.4.2 Mexico: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Breakdown, by Component
        • 10.1.1.4.3 Mexico: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Breakdown, by Vehicle Type

11. Competitive Landscape

  • 11.1 Company Positioning & Concentration

12. Industry Landscape

  • 12.1 Overview
  • 12.2 Market Initiative
  • 12.3 Product Development

13. Company Profiles

  • 13.1 Denso Corp
    • 13.1.1 Key Facts
    • 13.1.2 Business Description
    • 13.1.3 Products and Services
    • 13.1.4 Financial Overview
    • 13.1.5 SWOT Analysis
    • 13.1.6 Key Developments
  • 13.2 Modine Manufacturing Co
    • 13.2.1 Key Facts
    • 13.2.2 Business Description
    • 13.2.3 Products and Services
    • 13.2.4 Financial Overview
    • 13.2.5 SWOT Analysis
    • 13.2.6 Key Developments
  • 13.3 Hanon Systems
    • 13.3.1 Key Facts
    • 13.3.2 Business Description
    • 13.3.3 Products and Services
    • 13.3.4 Financial Overview
    • 13.3.5 SWOT Analysis
    • 13.3.6 Key Developments
  • 13.4 Mahle GmbH
    • 13.4.1 Key Facts
    • 13.4.2 Business Description
    • 13.4.3 Products and Services
    • 13.4.4 Financial Overview
    • 13.4.5 SWOT Analysis
    • 13.4.6 Key Developments
  • 13.5 Rheinmetall AG
    • 13.5.1 Key Facts
    • 13.5.2 Business Description
    • 13.5.3 Products and Services
    • 13.5.4 Financial Overview
    • 13.5.5 SWOT Analysis
    • 13.5.6 Key Developments
  • 13.6 Valeo SE
    • 13.6.1 Key Facts
    • 13.6.2 Business Description
    • 13.6.3 Products and Services
    • 13.6.4 Financial Overview
    • 13.6.5 SWOT Analysis
    • 13.6.6 Key Developments
  • 13.7 Mitsubishi Heavy Industries Ltd
    • 13.7.1 Key Facts
    • 13.7.2 Business Description
    • 13.7.3 Products and Services
    • 13.7.4 Financial Overview
    • 13.7.5 SWOT Analysis
    • 13.7.6 Key Developments
  • 13.8 TitanX Holding AB
    • 13.8.1 Key Facts
    • 13.8.2 Business Description
    • 13.8.3 Products and Services
    • 13.8.4 Financial Overview
    • 13.8.5 SWOT Analysis
    • 13.8.6 Key Developments
  • 13.9 SANDEN Corp
    • 13.9.1 Key Facts
    • 13.9.2 Business Description
    • 13.9.3 Products and Services
    • 13.9.4 Financial Overview
    • 13.9.5 SWOT Analysis
    • 13.9.6 Key Developments
  • 13.10 Highly Marelli Holdings Co., Ltd.
    • 13.10.1 Key Facts
    • 13.10.2 Business Description
    • 13.10.3 Products and Services
    • 13.10.4 Financial Overview
    • 13.10.5 SWOT Analysis
    • 13.10.6 Key Developments

14. Appendix

  • 14.1 About The Insight Partners

List Of Tables

  • Table 1. North America Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Segmentation
  • Table 2. List of Vendors
  • Table 3. Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • Table 4. Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million) - by Propulsion Type
  • Table 5. Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million) - by Component
  • Table 6. Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million) - by Vehicle Type
  • Table 7. North America: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million) - by Country
  • Table 8. United States: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million) - by Propulsion Type
  • Table 9. United States: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million) - by Component
  • Table 10. United States: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million) - by Vehicle Type
  • Table 11. Canada: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million) - by Propulsion Type
  • Table 12. Canada: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million) - by Component
  • Table 13. Canada: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million) - by Vehicle Type
  • Table 14. Mexico: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million) - by Propulsion Type
  • Table 15. Mexico: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million) - by Component
  • Table 16. Mexico: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million) - by Vehicle Type

List Of Figures

  • Figure 1. North America Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Segmentation, by Country
  • Figure 2. Ecosystem Analysis
  • Figure 3. Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Key Market Dynamics
  • Figure 4. Impact Analysis of Drivers and Restraints
  • Figure 5. Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Revenue (US$ Million), 2021-2031
  • Figure 6. Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Share (%) - by Propulsion Type (2023 and 2031)
  • Figure 7. BEV: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • Figure 8. HEV: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • Figure 9. PHEV: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • Figure 10. Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Share (%) - by Component (2023 and 2031)
  • Figure 11. Evaporator: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • Figure 12. Condenser: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • Figure 13. Compressors: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • Figure 14. Others: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • Figure 15. Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Share (%) - by Vehicle Type (2023 and 2031)
  • Figure 16. Passenger Vehicle: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • Figure 17. Commercial Vehicle: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • Figure 18. North America Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market, by Key Country - Revenue (2023) (US$ Million)
  • Figure 19. North America: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market Breakdown, by Key Countries, 2023 and 2031 (%)
  • Figure 20. United States: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • Figure 21. Canada: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • Figure 22. Mexico: Electric Vehicle Heat Pump Systems Market - Revenue and Forecast to 2031 (US$ Million)
  • Figure 23. Company Positioning & Concentration