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市場調查報告書
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1836404

玻璃包裝市場預測(至2032年):按材料類型、容器類型、顏色、最終用戶和地區進行的全球分析

Glass Packaging Market Forecasts to 2032 - Global Analysis By Material Type (Soda-Lime Glass, Borosilicate Glass, Treated Soda-Lime Glass, and Other Material Types), Container Type, Color, End User, and By Geography

出版日期: | 出版商: Stratistics Market Research Consulting | 英文 200+ Pages | 商品交期: 2-3個工作天內

價格

根據 Stratistics MRC 的數據,全球玻璃包裝市場預計在 2025 年達到 699 億美元,到 2032 年將達到 997 億美元,預測期內的複合年成長率為 5.2%。

玻璃包裝包括食品、食品飲料、化妝品和藥品的玻璃容器及包裝解決方案的製造和供應。玻璃因其非反應性、可回收和優質的特性而受到青睞,可確保產品安全和保存期限。消費者對永續環保包裝的日益偏好推動了需求。飲料和製藥行業的擴張,以及監管機構對可回收包裝材料的支持,正在推動玻璃包裝的成長,使其成為全球包裝市場中具有韌性和永續的選擇。

根據英國玻璃公司和 WRAP(英國)的統計,玻璃包裝 100% 可回收,在歐洲超過 90% 的包裝可重複使用。

優質化飲料

隨著消費者越來越青睞那些依賴玻璃來保證品質和純度的飲料,例如頂級烈酒啤酒、高階烈酒和精品軟性飲料,優質化正在推動玻璃包裝的需求。玻璃可以進行高階表面處理、壓花和加重,從而提升感知價值,使品牌能夠提高價格並提高淨利率。此外,零售商和品牌商正在投資差異化的玻璃設計,以在貨架上脫穎而出,而永續性認證則透過可回收的補充裝系統強化了品牌定位。

損壞風險

玻璃固有的易碎性增加了搬運和物流成本,迫使製造商和經銷商將包裝、緩衝和保險成本的增加納入考慮。在供應鏈較長和運輸基礎設施不平衡的新興市場,破損風險尤其顯著,這會增加產品損失並降低利潤率。此外,零售商還面臨貨架搬運挑戰和安全隱患,這導致便利商店通路限制玻璃產品的庫存量。這些損失降低了利潤率,並阻礙了小型生產商採用玻璃。

製藥業的成長

製藥業的成長推動了對無菌管瓶、安瓿瓶和腸外包裝的需求,這些產品需要化學惰性和優異的阻隔性。監管部門對污染預防和生物治療的重視,使得注射劑和疫苗越來越依賴I型硼硼矽酸玻璃和特殊鍍膜玻璃。此外,受託製造廠商和CMO正在投資自動化填充和檢測生產線,這推動了對高品質無菌容器的需求。合約填充能力的提升和對區域無菌包裝的投資,進一步加速了無菌容器的普及。

與替代品的競爭

輕質塑膠、鋁罐和多層複合材料的競爭正在給傳統玻璃容器的銷售量帶來壓力,尤其是在注重便利性和成本的類別中。替代塑膠透過更輕的重量和抗破碎性能降低了物流成本,而PET阻隔技術和回收基礎設施的進步正在縮小某些地區的永續性差距。隨著消費者需求在便利性、永續性和奢華性之間日益分化,玻璃必須透過品牌建立和合規性來證明其較高的單價合理性。這可能導致價格敏感品類出現替代,進而對玻璃價格和銷售造成壓力。

COVID-19的影響:

新冠疫情爆發導致工廠停工、運輸瓶頸和原料流動受限,擾亂了玻璃供應鏈,造成暫時的產能短缺和交付延遲。需求模式發生了變化,非居家飲料銷量下降,而醫藥和疫苗相關玻璃需求激增,導致生產重點發生變化。製造商透過加速自動化和多元化採購管道來增強韌性,以滿足對無菌容器的迫切需求。整體而言,疫情強化了本地製造能力和供應鏈彈性對玻璃包裝產業的戰略價值。

預測期內,鈉鈣玻璃(III 型)市場預計將成為最大的市場

預計鈉鈣玻璃(III 型)將在預測期內佔據最大的市場佔有率。鈉鈣玻璃因其在大多數食品和飲料應用(尤其是瓶裝和罐裝)中兼具性能和成本的平衡而佔據主導地位。鈉鈣玻璃因其低廉的原料和製造成本、高效的成型性能以及適合大規模生產的特點,成為大批量應用的首選。此外,廣泛的回收和成熟的供應鏈使其總生命週期成本較低,使其成為全球主流飲料和食品包裝的預設材料。

預計預測期內管瓶和安瓿瓶部分將以最高的複合年成長率成長。

預計在預測期內,管瓶和安瓿瓶細分市場將實現最高成長率。推動這一成長的因素包括:生物製藥產品線加速擴張、疫苗計畫不斷擴大,以及需要無菌和化學穩定容器的注射劑產量增加。此外,更嚴格的法規、不斷擴展的低溫運輸基礎設施以及全球製藥生產在地化的推動,進一步推動了對高規格硼硼矽酸玻璃管瓶和安瓿瓶的需求。契約製造製造商和特種玻璃製造商正在擴大其生產和測試能力,以搶佔這個快速成長的高價值細分市場。

最大佔有率區域:

預計亞太地區將在預測期內佔據最大的市場佔有率。亞太地區的主導地位得益於其龐大的飲料消費人口、不斷成長的製藥製造業基礎以及支持規模化生產且成本競爭力強的玻璃製造生態系統。此外,不斷成長的可支配收入、優質化趨勢以及不斷擴張的零售和電商通路正在推動對需要玻璃的包裝商品的需求。當地玻璃製造商和外國投資者正在擴大產能,以滿足區域需求。

複合年成長率最高的地區:

預計亞太地區將在預測期內實現最高的複合年成長率。快速的都市化、不斷成長的中階消費以及國內醫藥和個人護理製造業的大量投資推動了這一成長,這些投資青睞採用玻璃包裝來包裝對質量敏感的產品。此外,政府對製造業的激勵措施、物流的改善以及有針對性的回收計劃正在強化該地區的價值鏈。快速的城市擴張和不斷變化的消費者偏好預計將推動長期的銷售成長。

免費客製化服務:

此報告的訂閱者可以使用以下免費自訂選項之一:

  • 公司簡介
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  • 區域細分
    • 根據客戶興趣對主要國家進行的市場估計、預測和複合年成長率(註:基於可行性檢查)
  • 競爭基準化分析
    • 根據產品系列、地理分佈和策略聯盟對主要企業基準化分析

目錄

第1章執行摘要

第2章 前言

  • 概述
  • 相關利益者
  • 調查範圍
  • 調查方法
    • 資料探勘
    • 數據分析
    • 數據檢驗
    • 研究途徑
  • 研究材料
    • 主要研究資料
    • 次級研究資訊來源
    • 先決條件

第3章市場走勢分析

  • 驅動程式
  • 抑制因素
  • 機會
  • 威脅
  • 最終用戶分析
  • 新興市場
  • COVID-19的影響

第4章 波特五力分析

  • 供應商的議價能力
  • 買方的議價能力
  • 替代品的威脅
  • 新進入者的威脅
  • 競爭對手之間的競爭

5. 全球玻璃包裝市場(依材料類型)

  • 鈉鈣玻璃(III型)
  • 硼硼矽酸玻璃(I型)
  • 經過處理的鈉鈣玻璃
  • 其他材料類型

6. 全球玻璃包裝市場(依容器類型)

  • 瓶子
  • 瓶子和容器
  • 管瓶和安瓿瓶
  • 藥筒和注射器
  • 其他容器類型

7. 全球玻璃包裝市場(依顏色)

  • 火石(透明)玻璃
  • 琥珀色玻璃
  • 綠草
  • 藍草音樂
  • 其他顏色

8. 全球玻璃包裝市場(依最終用戶)

  • 酒精飲料公司
  • 非酒精飲料公司
  • 食品製造商
  • 製藥和生物技術公司
  • 化妝品和個人護理品牌
  • 其他最終用戶

9. 全球玻璃包裝市場(按地區)

  • 北美洲
    • 美國
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥
  • 歐洲
    • 德國
    • 英國
    • 義大利
    • 法國
    • 西班牙
    • 其他歐洲國家
  • 亞太地區
    • 日本
    • 中國
    • 印度
    • 澳洲
    • 紐西蘭
    • 韓國
    • 其他亞太地區
  • 南美洲
    • 阿根廷
    • 巴西
    • 智利
    • 其他南美
  • 中東和非洲
    • 沙烏地阿拉伯
    • 阿拉伯聯合大公國
    • 卡達
    • 南非
    • 其他中東和非洲地區

第10章:重大進展

  • 協議、夥伴關係、合作和合資企業
  • 收購與合併
  • 新產品發布
  • 業務擴展
  • 其他關鍵策略

第11章 公司概況

  • Owens-Illinois, Inc.
  • Ardagh Group SA
  • Verallia SA
  • Vidrala SA
  • Vetropack Holding Ltd.
  • BA Glass International Ltd.
  • Consol Glass(Pty)Ltd.
  • PGP Glass Private Limited
  • Hindusthan National Glass & Industries Limited
  • Heinz-Glas GmbH & Co. KGaA
  • Stolzle Oberglas GmbH
  • Wiegand-Glas Holding GmbH
  • Gerresheimer AG
  • Nihon Yamamura Glass Co., Ltd.
  • Toyo Seikan Group Holdings, Ltd.
  • OI Glass, Inc.
Product Code: SMRC31528

According to Stratistics MRC, the Global Glass Packaging Market is accounted for $69.9 billion in 2025 and is expected to reach $99.7 billion by 2032 growing at a CAGR of 5.2% during the forecast period. Glass packaging involves manufacturing and supplying glass containers and packaging solutions for food, beverages, cosmetics, and pharmaceuticals. Glass is preferred for its non-reactive, recyclable, and premium-quality characteristics, ensuring product safety and preservation. Growing consumer preference for sustainable and eco-friendly packaging is driving demand. Expansion in the beverage and pharmaceutical industries, along with regulatory support for recyclable packaging materials, is fueling growth, positioning glass as a resilient and sustainable choice in global packaging markets.

According to British Glass and WRAP (UK), glass packaging is 100% recyclable and reused in over 90% of cases in Europe.

Market Dynamics:

Driver:

Premiumization in Beverages

Premiumization has driven demand for glass packaging as consumers trade up to craft beers, premium spirits and boutique soft drinks that rely on glass to signal quality and purity. Glass enables premium finishes, embossing and heavier weights that enhance perceived value, allowing brands to charge higher prices and improve margins. Additionally, retailers and brand owners invest in differentiated glass designs to stand out on shelf, while sustainability credentials reinforce brand positioning through recyclability and refillable systems.

Restraint:

Risk of breakage

Glass's inherent fragility raises handling and logistics costs, prompting manufacturers and distributors to factor in higher packaging, cushioning and insurance expenses. Breakage risks are especially pronounced in long supply chains and in emerging markets with uneven transport infrastructure, which increases product loss and reduces profit margins. Furthermore, retailers face additional shelf-handling challenges and safety concerns, encouraging some to limit glass SKUs in convenience channels. Such losses erode margins and deter small producers from adopting glass.

Opportunity:

Growth in Pharmaceutical Industry

Growth in the pharmaceutical industry is expanding demand for sterile glass vials, ampoules and parenteral packaging where chemical inertness and excellent barrier properties are mandatory. Regulatory emphasis on contamination control and biologic therapeutics has increased reliance on Type I borosilicate and specialized coated glass for injectables and vaccines. Additionally, contract manufacturing organizations and CMOs are investing in automated filling and inspection lines, raising demand for high-quality sterile containers. Contract filling capacity expansion and regional sterile packaging investment further accelerate uptake.

Threat:

Competition from Alternatives

Competition from lightweight plastics, aluminum cans and multilayer composites is pressuring traditional glass volumes in categories prioritizing convenience and cost. Alternatives offer logistical savings through lower weight and shatter resistance, and advances in PET barrier technologies and recycling infrastructure have narrowed sustainability differentials in certain regions. As consumer demand fragments across convenience, sustainability and premium segments, glass must justify higher unit costs through branding or regulatory fit. Price-sensitive categories may therefore switch to alternatives, pressuring glass pricing and volume.

Covid-19 Impact:

The Covid-19 pandemic disrupted glass supply chains through plant shutdowns, transport bottlenecks and constrained raw material flows, causing transient capacity shortages and delayed deliveries. Demand patterns shifted beverage away-from-home sales fell while pharmaceutical and vaccine-related glass requirements surged, altering production priorities. Manufacturers accelerated automation and diversified sourcing to shore up resilience and meet urgent sterile-container demand. Overall, the pandemic reinforced the strategic value of local capacity and supply-chain flexibility for the glass packaging industry.

The soda-lime glass (Type III) segment is expected to be the largest during the forecast period

The soda-lime glass (Type III) segment is expected to account for the largest market share during the forecast period. Soda-lime glass dominates because it balances performance and cost for the vast majority of food and beverage applications, particularly bottles and jars. Its low raw-material and manufacturing costs, efficient forming characteristics and compatibility with mass production make it the material of choice for high-volume categories. Additionally, widespread recycling streams and established supply chains lower total lifecycle costs; therefore, soda-lime remains the default for mainstream beverage and food packaging globally.

The vials & ampoules segment is expected to have the highest CAGR during the forecast period

Over the forecast period, the vials & ampoules segment is predicted to witness the highest growth rate. This expansion is driven by accelerating biopharmaceutical pipelines, expanding vaccine programs and increased production of injectable therapies that require sterile, chemically stable containers. Moreover, tighter regulatory scrutiny, growing cold-chain infrastructure and the global push to localize drug manufacturing further boost demand for high-specification borosilicate glass vials and ampoules. Contract manufacturers and specialized glass suppliers are scaling capacity and inspection capabilities to capture this fast-growing, high-value segment.

Region with largest share:

During the forecast period, the Asia Pacific region is expected to hold the largest market share. Asia Pacific's dominance stems from its large beverage-consuming population, growing pharmaceutical manufacturing base and a cost-competitive glass production ecosystem that supports scale. Additionally, rising disposable incomes, premiumization trends and expanding retail and e-commerce channels increase demand for packaged goods requiring glass. Local glassmakers and foreign investors are expanding capacity to meet regional demand.

Region with highest CAGR:

Over the forecast period, the Asia Pacific region is anticipated to exhibit the highest CAGR. Accelerated growth is underpinned by rapid urbanization; rising middle-class consumption and significant investment in domestic pharmaceutical and personal-care manufacturing that favors glass packaging for quality-sensitive products. Furthermore, government incentives for manufacturing, improvements in logistics and targeted recycling initiatives are strengthening the regional value chain. Rapid urban expansion and evolving consumer preferences will sustain long-term volume expansion.

Key players in the market

Some of the key players in Glass Packaging Market include Owens-Illinois, Inc., Ardagh Group S.A., Verallia S.A., Vidrala S.A., Vetropack Holding Ltd., BA Glass International Ltd., Consol Glass (Pty) Ltd., PGP Glass Private Limited, Hindusthan National Glass & Industries Limited, Heinz-Glas GmbH & Co. KGaA, Stolzle Oberglas GmbH, Wiegand-Glas Holding GmbH, Gerresheimer AG, Nihon Yamamura Glass Co., Ltd., Toyo Seikan Group Holdings, Ltd., and O-I Glass, Inc.

Key Developments:

In September 2025, Verallia inaugurated an oxy-combustion furnace in Campo Bom, Brazil, reinforcing its commitment to sustainable innovation in glass packaging.

In August 2025, Ardagh Glass Packaging-Europe introduced a 300g lightweight glass wine bottle, aiming to meet the demand for sustainable packaging solutions.

In June 2025, Verallia S.A. launched Vista by Verallia, a new glass packaging solution made from 100% post-consumer recycled glass, reducing raw materials and energy use while maintaining premium quality.

In May 2025, O-I Glass achieved new glass recycling milestones in the U.S., recycling over 400 metric tons of glass, equivalent to removing 30 cars from the road.

Material Types Covered:

  • Soda-Lime Glass (Type III)
  • Borosilicate Glass (Type I)
  • Treated Soda-Lime Glass
  • Other Material Types

Container Types Covered:

  • Bottles
  • Jars & Containers
  • Vials & Ampoules
  • Cartridges & Syringes
  • Other Container Types

Colors Covered:

  • Flint (Clear) Glass
  • Amber Glass
  • Green Glass
  • Blue Glass
  • Other Colors

End Users Covered:

  • Alcoholic Beverage Companies
  • Non-Alcoholic Beverage Companies
  • Food Manufacturers
  • Pharmaceutical & Biotechnology Companies
  • Cosmetic & Personal Care Brands
  • Other End Users

Regions Covered:

  • North America
    • US
    • Canada
    • Mexico
  • Europe
    • Germany
    • UK
    • Italy
    • France
    • Spain
    • Rest of Europe
  • Asia Pacific
    • Japan
    • China
    • India
    • Australia
    • New Zealand
    • South Korea
    • Rest of Asia Pacific
  • South America
    • Argentina
    • Brazil
    • Chile
    • Rest of South America
  • Middle East & Africa
    • Saudi Arabia
    • UAE
    • Qatar
    • South Africa
    • Rest of Middle East & Africa

What our report offers:

  • Market share assessments for the regional and country-level segments
  • Strategic recommendations for the new entrants
  • Covers Market data for the years 2024, 2025, 2026, 2028, and 2032
  • Market Trends (Drivers, Constraints, Opportunities, Threats, Challenges, Investment Opportunities, and recommendations)
  • Strategic recommendations in key business segments based on the market estimations
  • Competitive landscaping mapping the key common trends
  • Company profiling with detailed strategies, financials, and recent developments
  • Supply chain trends mapping the latest technological advancements

Free Customization Offerings:

All the customers of this report will be entitled to receive one of the following free customization options:

  • Company Profiling
    • Comprehensive profiling of additional market players (up to 3)
    • SWOT Analysis of key players (up to 3)
  • Regional Segmentation
    • Market estimations, Forecasts and CAGR of any prominent country as per the client's interest (Note: Depends on feasibility check)
  • Competitive Benchmarking
    • Benchmarking of key players based on product portfolio, geographical presence, and strategic alliances

Table of Contents

1 Executive Summary

2 Preface

  • 2.1 Abstract
  • 2.2 Stake Holders
  • 2.3 Research Scope
  • 2.4 Research Methodology
    • 2.4.1 Data Mining
    • 2.4.2 Data Analysis
    • 2.4.3 Data Validation
    • 2.4.4 Research Approach
  • 2.5 Research Sources
    • 2.5.1 Primary Research Sources
    • 2.5.2 Secondary Research Sources
    • 2.5.3 Assumptions

3 Market Trend Analysis

  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Drivers
  • 3.3 Restraints
  • 3.4 Opportunities
  • 3.5 Threats
  • 3.6 End User Analysis
  • 3.7 Emerging Markets
  • 3.8 Impact of Covid-19

4 Porters Five Force Analysis

  • 4.1 Bargaining power of suppliers
  • 4.2 Bargaining power of buyers
  • 4.3 Threat of substitutes
  • 4.4 Threat of new entrants
  • 4.5 Competitive rivalry

5 Global Glass Packaging Market, By Material Type

  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Soda-Lime Glass (Type III)
  • 5.3 Borosilicate Glass (Type I)
  • 5.4 Treated Soda-Lime Glass
  • 5.5 Other Material Types

6 Global Glass Packaging Market, By Container Type

  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Bottles
  • 6.3 Jars & Containers
  • 6.4 Vials & Ampoules
  • 6.5 Cartridges & Syringes
  • 6.6 Other Container Types

7 Global Glass Packaging Market, By Color

  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Flint (Clear) Glass
  • 7.3 Amber Glass
  • 7.4 Green Glass
  • 7.5 Blue Glass
  • 7.6 Other Colors

8 Global Glass Packaging Market, By End User

  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Alcoholic Beverage Companies
  • 8.3 Non-Alcoholic Beverage Companies
  • 8.4 Food Manufacturers
  • 8.5 Pharmaceutical & Biotechnology Companies
  • 8.6 Cosmetic & Personal Care Brands
  • 8.7 Other End Users

9 Global Glass Packaging Market, By Geography

  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 North America
    • 9.2.1 US
    • 9.2.2 Canada
    • 9.2.3 Mexico
  • 9.3 Europe
    • 9.3.1 Germany
    • 9.3.2 UK
    • 9.3.3 Italy
    • 9.3.4 France
    • 9.3.5 Spain
    • 9.3.6 Rest of Europe
  • 9.4 Asia Pacific
    • 9.4.1 Japan
    • 9.4.2 China
    • 9.4.3 India
    • 9.4.4 Australia
    • 9.4.5 New Zealand
    • 9.4.6 South Korea
    • 9.4.7 Rest of Asia Pacific
  • 9.5 South America
    • 9.5.1 Argentina
    • 9.5.2 Brazil
    • 9.5.3 Chile
    • 9.5.4 Rest of South America
  • 9.6 Middle East & Africa
    • 9.6.1 Saudi Arabia
    • 9.6.2 UAE
    • 9.6.3 Qatar
    • 9.6.4 South Africa
    • 9.6.5 Rest of Middle East & Africa

10 Key Developments

  • 10.1 Agreements, Partnerships, Collaborations and Joint Ventures
  • 10.2 Acquisitions & Mergers
  • 10.3 New Product Launch
  • 10.4 Expansions
  • 10.5 Other Key Strategies

11 Company Profiling

  • 11.1 Owens-Illinois, Inc.
  • 11.2 Ardagh Group S.A.
  • 11.3 Verallia S.A.
  • 11.4 Vidrala S.A.
  • 11.5 Vetropack Holding Ltd.
  • 11.6 BA Glass International Ltd.
  • 11.7 Consol Glass (Pty) Ltd.
  • 11.8 PGP Glass Private Limited
  • 11.9 Hindusthan National Glass & Industries Limited
  • 11.10 Heinz-Glas GmbH & Co. KGaA
  • 11.11 Stolzle Oberglas GmbH
  • 11.12 Wiegand-Glas Holding GmbH
  • 11.13 Gerresheimer AG
  • 11.14 Nihon Yamamura Glass Co., Ltd.
  • 11.15 Toyo Seikan Group Holdings, Ltd.
  • 11.16 O-I Glass, Inc.

List of Tables

  • Table 1 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Region (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 2 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Container Type (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 3 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Bottles (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 4 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Jars & Containers (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 5 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Vials & Ampoules (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 6 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Cartridges & Syringes (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 7 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Other Container Types (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 8 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Color (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 9 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Flint (Clear) Glass (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 10 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Amber Glass (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 11 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Green Glass (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 12 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Blue Glass (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 13 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Other Colors (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 14 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By End User (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 15 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Alcoholic Beverage Companies (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 16 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Non-Alcoholic Beverage Companies (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 17 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Food Manufacturers (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 18 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Pharmaceutical & Biotechnology Companies (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 19 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Cosmetic & Personal Care Brands (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 20 Global Glass Packaging Market Outlook, By Other End Users (2024-2032) ($MN)

Note: Tables for North America, Europe, APAC, South America, and Middle East & Africa Regions are also represented in the same manner as above.