封面
市場調查報告書
商品編碼
1833576

標準筆針市場預測至 2032 年:按藥物類型、適應症、針頭尺寸、可用性、購買模式、最終用戶和地區的全球分析

Standard Pen Needles Market Forecasts to 2032 - Global Analysis By Drug Type (Insulin, Growth Hormone, GLP-1, and Other Drug Types), Disease Indication, Needle Size, Usability, Mode of Purchase, End User and By Geography

出版日期: | 出版商: Stratistics Market Research Consulting | 英文 200+ Pages | 商品交期: 2-3個工作天內

價格

根據 Stratistics MRC 的數據,預計 2025 年全球標準筆針市場規模將達到 16.9 億美元,到 2032 年將達到 30.6 億美元,預測期內複合年成長率為 8.8%。

標準筆針是細小的一次性醫用針頭,可連接到胰島素筆和類似的注射器。它們能夠實現皮下精準可控的藥物輸送。它們有多種長度和粗細可供選擇,旨在提高患者舒適度和給藥準確性。其一次性使用的特性有助於防止感染和污染,使其成為自行注射治療的安全便捷的選擇。

根據國際糖尿病聯盟(IDF)的數據,2023年將有超過5.3億成年人罹患糖尿病,預計未來幾十年這一數字還會增加。

患者對胰島素筆的偏好日益成長

糖尿病等慢性疾病的日益流行,推動了對便捷給藥系統的需求。胰島素筆因其易於使用、便於攜帶以及與傳統注射器相比注射疼痛減輕等優點,正日益受到歡迎。筆針設計的技術進步正在提高患者的舒適度和劑量的準確性。隨著醫療保健朝向個人化治療方向發展,胰島素筆正成為日常疾病管理的必需品。老年人口的成長和診斷率的提高進一步推動了胰島素筆的應用。由於糖尿病照護和糖尿病教育的普及,新興市場的胰島素筆應用也日益普及。

過渡到安全針頭

向安全筆針的過渡給製造商帶來了監管和成本相關的挑戰。這些設備需要符合嚴格的安全標準,包括防止針刺傷的機制。增加安全功能通常會增加製造的複雜性和成本,進而影響利潤率。小型企業面臨核准ISO和FDA等全球認證要求的挑戰。針頭追蹤和處置感測器等智慧技術的整合也進一步增加了監管審查。這些因素可能會減緩創新,並推遲產品在競爭激烈的市場中的上市。

自我管理的趨勢日益成長

日益成長的自我管理療法趨勢為標準注射筆針頭創造了新的機會。隨著患者擴大選擇在家中管理慢性疾病,對易於使用、可靠的注射器的需求也日益成長。針頭人體工學和超薄設計的創新正在提升舒適度並減少焦慮。由於衛生方面的考慮和感染控制通訊協定,一次性注射筆針頭越來越受歡迎。製造商正在探索可生物分解的材料和智慧包裝,以符合永續性目標。遠端醫療平台和遠端監控技術也支持了這一轉變,這些技術可以提高患者的自主性。

安全裝置嚴格規定

安全設備的法律規範正變得越來越複雜和嚴格。當局在核准新的針頭技術之前,需要大量的臨床檢驗和記錄。劑量追蹤和連接等數位化功能的興起,也帶來了額外的合規挑戰。供應鏈中斷和材料短缺會使監管時間更加複雜。缺乏強大監管團隊的公司可能難以應對不斷變化的標準,尤其是在跨境市場。這些限制阻礙了創新,並限制了市場擴張的速度。

COVID-19的影響:

封鎖和醫療保健優先順序的調整推遲了常規糖尿病護理和選擇性治療。然而,這場危機加速了居家醫療和自行注射的普及。監管機構對包括注射筆針頭在內的基本醫療設備引入了快速核准。數位健康平台和遠距會診支持了疫情期間醫療服務的連續性。後疫情時代策略的重點是供應鏈的韌性、自動化和分散式生產,以確保不間斷的取得。

預計胰島素市場將成為預測期內最大的市場

預計在預測期內,胰島素細分市場將佔據最大的市場佔有率,這得益於全球糖尿病負擔的不斷增加以及胰島素療法的廣泛應用。胰島素輸送系統的技術進步提高了注射的準確性和患者的依從性。用於胰島素筆的注射針頭也變得越來越複雜,例如長度更短、規格更細。越來越多的醫療保健提供者建議使用胰島素筆,以更好地控制血糖並減少注射錯誤。隨著胰島素治療日益個人化,對相容注射針頭的需求持續激增。

預計家庭醫療保健領域在預測期內將實現最高複合年成長率

預計家庭醫療保健領域將在預測期內實現最高成長率。不斷上漲的醫療成本和病患對居家照護的偏好推動了這一轉變。注射筆針頭是自行注射的必備工具,已成為家庭慢性病管理的核心。包裝和針頭安全的技術創新使這些設備更容易被非臨床使用者使用。遠端醫療和遠端監控技術正在強化分散式醫療的趨勢。隨著醫療保健體系的不斷發展,家庭醫療保健已成為注射筆針頭製造商的關鍵成長引擎。

比最大的地區

預計亞太地區將在預測期內佔據最大的市場佔有率。快速的都市化和不斷上升的糖尿病盛行率正在推動中國、印度和日本等國的需求。政府推動本地生產和負擔得起的醫療保健的措施正在促進市場滲透。該地區正在見證數位醫療工具和智慧注射器的普及。全球品牌與區域參與者之間的策略夥伴關係正在加速技術轉移。對醫療基礎設施的投資和社會意識宣傳活動正在進一步擴大用戶群。

複合年成長率最高的地區:

預計北美在預測期內的複合年成長率最高。該地區在技術創新方面處於領先地位,例如先進的針頭設計和安全功能的整合。監管機構正在簡化下一代注射器的核准流程,以加快其商業化進程。自我護理和遠距醫療管理的廣泛普及推動了對易於使用的注射筆針頭的需求。醫療保健提供者正在利用數據分析和物聯網來最佳化慢性病的治療通訊協定。強大的報銷體系和強勁的研發投入正在鞏固北美在該領域的領先地位。

目標應用

  • 免洗筆針
  • 可重複使用的筆針

免費客製化服務:

此報告的訂閱者可以選擇以下免費自訂選項之一:

  • 公司簡介
    • 全面分析其他市場參與者(最多 3 家公司)
    • 主要企業的SWOT分析(最多3家公司)
  • 區域細分
    • 根據客戶興趣對主要國家進行的市場估計、預測和複合年成長率(註:基於可行性檢查)
  • 競爭基準化分析
    • 根據產品系列、地理分佈和策略聯盟對主要企業基準化分析

目錄

第1章執行摘要

第2章 前言

  • 概述
  • 相關利益者
  • 調查範圍
  • 調查方法
    • 資料探勘
    • 數據分析
    • 數據檢驗
    • 研究途徑
  • 研究材料
    • 主要研究資料
    • 次級研究資訊來源
    • 先決條件

第3章市場走勢分析

  • 驅動程式
  • 抑制因素
  • 機會
  • 威脅
  • 最終用戶分析
  • 新興市場
  • COVID-19的影響

第4章 波特五力分析

  • 供應商的議價能力
  • 買方的議價能力
  • 替代品的威脅
  • 新進入者的威脅
  • 競爭對手之間的競爭

5. 全球標準筆針市場(依藥物類型)

  • 胰島素
  • 生長激素
  • GLP-1
  • 其他藥物類型

6. 全球標準筆針市場(按適應症)

  • 糖尿病
  • 荷爾蒙缺乏
  • 肥胖

7. 全球標準筆針市場(依針頭尺寸)

  • 4毫米
  • 5毫米
  • 6毫米
  • 8毫米
  • 12毫米

8. 全球標準筆針市場依使用性別

  • 免洗筆針
  • 可重複使用的筆針

9. 全球標準筆針市場按購買類型

  • 零售
  • 線上購買
  • 非零售通路

10. 全球標準筆針市場(依最終用戶)

  • 醫院
  • 家庭醫療保健
  • 診所
  • 其他最終用戶

第 11 章全球標準筆針頭市場(按地區)

  • 北美洲
    • 美國
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥
  • 歐洲
    • 德國
    • 英國
    • 義大利
    • 法國
    • 西班牙
    • 其他歐洲國家
  • 亞太地區
    • 日本
    • 中國
    • 印度
    • 澳洲
    • 紐西蘭
    • 韓國
    • 其他亞太地區
  • 南美洲
    • 阿根廷
    • 巴西
    • 智利
    • 其他南美
  • 中東和非洲
    • 沙烏地阿拉伯
    • 阿拉伯聯合大公國
    • 卡達
    • 南非
    • 其他中東和非洲地區

第12章 重大進展

  • 協議、夥伴關係、合作和合資企業
  • 收購與合併
  • 新產品發布
  • 業務擴展
  • 其他關鍵策略

第13章:企業概況

  • Becton, Dickinson and Company
  • Berpu Medical Technology Co., Ltd.
  • Novo Nordisk A/S
  • HTL-STREFA
  • Embecta Corp.
  • GlucoRx Limited
  • Ypsomed AG
  • ARKRAY, Inc.
  • B. Braun SE
  • AdvaCare Pharma
  • Owen Mumford Ltd.
  • Allison Medical, Inc.
  • Terumo Corporation
  • UltiMed, Inc.
  • NIPRO Corporation
Product Code: SMRC31409

According to Stratistics MRC, the Global Standard Pen Needles Market is accounted for $1.69 billion in 2025 and is expected to reach $3.06 billion by 2032 growing at a CAGR of 8.8% during the forecast period. Standard pen needles are thin, single-use medical needles that connect to insulin pens or similar injection devices. They enable accurate and controlled delivery of medications under the skin. Available in various lengths and thicknesses, these needles are designed to enhance patient comfort and dosing precision. Their disposable nature helps prevent infection and contamination, making them a safe and convenient option for self-administering injectable treatments.

According to the International Diabetes Federation (IDF), over 530 million adults were living with diabetes in 2023, and this number is expected to rise in the coming decades.

Market Dynamics:

Driver:

Increasing patient preference for insulin pens

The growing prevalence of chronic illnesses like diabetes is fueling demand for convenient drug delivery systems. Insulin pens are gaining popularity due to their ease of use, portability, and reduced injection pain compared to traditional syringes. Technological advancements in pen needle design are improving patient comfort and dosage accuracy. As healthcare shifts toward personalized treatment, insulin pens are becoming integral to daily disease management. The rise in elderly populations and improved diagnostic rates are further boosting adoption. Emerging markets are witnessing increased uptake due to expanding access to diabetes care and education.

Restraint:

Shift towards safety pen needles

The transition toward safety pen needles is introducing regulatory and cost-related hurdles for manufacturers. These devices require compliance with stringent safety standards, including mechanisms to prevent needlestick injuries. Incorporating safety features often increases production complexity and cost, impacting profit margins. Smaller players face challenges in meeting global certification requirements like ISO and FDA approvals. The integration of smart technologies such as needle tracking and disposal sensors adds further regulatory scrutiny. These factors can slow down innovation and delay product launches in competitive markets.

Opportunity:

Rising trend of self-administration

The growing trend of self-administered therapies is creating new opportunities for standard pen needles. Patients are increasingly managing chronic conditions at home, driving demand for user-friendly and reliable injection devices. Innovations in needle ergonomics and ultra-thin designs are enhancing comfort and reducing anxiety. Disposable pen needles are gaining traction due to hygiene concerns and infection control protocols. Manufacturers are exploring biodegradable materials and smart packaging to align with sustainability goals. This shift is also supported by telehealth platforms and remote monitoring technologies that empower patient autonomy.

Threat:

Stringent regulations on safety devices

Regulatory frameworks governing safety devices are becoming more complex and demanding. Authorities require extensive clinical validation and documentation before approving new needle technologies. The rise of digital features like dose tracking and connectivity adds layers of compliance challenges. Supply chain disruptions and material shortages can further complicate regulatory timelines. Companies without robust regulatory teams may struggle to navigate evolving standards, especially in cross-border markets. These constraints can hinder innovation and limit the speed of market expansion.

Covid-19 Impact:

Lockdowns and healthcare reprioritization delayed routine diabetes care and elective treatments. However, the crisis accelerated the adoption of home-based care and self-injection practices. Regulatory bodies introduced fast-track approvals for essential medical devices, including pen needles. Digital health platforms and remote consultations supported continuity of care during the pandemic. Post-COVID strategies now emphasize supply chain resilience, automation, and decentralized production to ensure uninterrupted access.

The insulin segment is expected to be the largest during the forecast period

The insulin segment is expected to account for the largest market share during the forecast period, driven by the rising global burden of diabetes and the widespread use of insulin therapy. Technological improvements in insulin delivery systems are enhancing precision and patient adherence. Pen needles designed for insulin pens are becoming more sophisticated, with features like shorter lengths and finer gauges. Healthcare providers are increasingly recommending insulin pens for better glycemic control and reduced injection errors. As insulin therapy becomes more personalized, demand for compatible pen needles continues to surge.

The home healthcare segment is expected to have the highest CAGR during the forecast period

Over the forecast period, the home healthcare segment is predicted to witness the highest growth rate. Rising healthcare costs and patient preference for at-home treatment are driving this shift. Pen needles are essential tools for self-injection, making them central to home-based chronic disease management. Innovations in packaging and needle safety are making these devices more accessible for non-clinical users. Telemedicine and remote monitoring technologies are reinforcing the trend toward decentralized care. As healthcare systems evolve, home healthcare is emerging as a key growth engine for pen needle manufacturers.

Region with largest share:

During the forecast period, the Asia Pacific region is expected to hold the largest market share. Rapid urbanization and increasing diabetes prevalence are fuelling demand across countries like China, India, and Japan. Government initiatives promoting local manufacturing and affordable healthcare are boosting market penetration. The region is witnessing strong adoption of digital health tools and smart injection devices. Strategic collaborations between global brands and regional players are accelerating technology transfer. Investments in healthcare infrastructure and public awareness campaigns are further expanding the user base.

Region with highest CAGR:

Over the forecast period, the North America region is anticipated to exhibit the highest CAGR. The region leads in technological innovation, with advanced needle designs and integrated safety features. Regulatory agencies are streamlining approval processes for next-gen injection devices, encouraging rapid commercialization. High adoption of self-care and remote health management is driving demand for user-friendly pen needles. Healthcare providers are leveraging data analytics and IoT to optimize chronic disease treatment protocols. Robust reimbursement frameworks and strong R&D investments are reinforcing North America's leadership in this space.

Key players in the market

Some of the key players in Standard Pen Needles Market include Becton, Dickinson and Company, Berpu Medical Technology Co., Ltd., Novo Nordisk A/S, HTL-STREFA, Embecta Corp., GlucoRx Limited, Ypsomed AG, ARKRAY, Inc., B. Braun SE, AdvaCarePharma, Owen Mumford Ltd., Allison Medical, Inc., Terumo Corporation, UltiMed, Inc., and NIPRO Corporation.

Key Developments:

In September2025, BD (Becton, Dickinson and Company) announced a pharmacy automation partnership with Henry Ford Health to develop the health system pharmacy of the future, with an initial focus on a robotic solution that will enable patients to pick up select prescriptions at their convenience 24 hours a day, seven days a week.

In May2025, Novo Nordisk and Septerna, Inc. announced an exclusive global collaboration and license agreement to discover, develop and commercialise oral small molecule medicines for obesity, type 2 diabetes and other cardiometabolic diseases.

DrugTypes Covered:

  • Insulin
  • Growth Hormone
  • GLP-1
  • Other Drug Types

Disease Indications Covered:

  • Diabetes
  • Hormone Deficiency
  • Obesity

Needle Sizes Covered:

  • 4 mm
  • 5 mm
  • 6 mm
  • 8 mm
  • 12 mm

UsabilitiesCovered:

  • Disposable Pen Needles
  • Reusable Pen Needles

Mode of Purchases Covered:

  • Retail
  • Online Purchase
  • Non-Retail Channels

End Users Covered:

  • Hospitals
  • Home Healthcare
  • Clinics
  • Other End Users

Regions Covered:

  • North America
    • US
    • Canada
    • Mexico
  • Europe
    • Germany
    • UK
    • Italy
    • France
    • Spain
    • Rest of Europe
  • Asia Pacific
    • Japan
    • China
    • India
    • Australia
    • New Zealand
    • South Korea
    • Rest of Asia Pacific
  • South America
    • Argentina
    • Brazil
    • Chile
    • Rest of South America
  • Middle East & Africa
    • Saudi Arabia
    • UAE
    • Qatar
    • South Africa
    • Rest of Middle East & Africa

What our report offers:

  • Market share assessments for the regional and country-level segments
  • Strategic recommendations for the new entrants
  • Covers Market data for the years 2024, 2025, 2026, 2028, and 2032
  • Market Trends (Drivers, Constraints, Opportunities, Threats, Challenges, Investment Opportunities, and recommendations)
  • Strategic recommendations in key business segments based on the market estimations
  • Competitive landscaping mapping the key common trends
  • Company profiling with detailed strategies, financials, and recent developments
  • Supply chain trends mapping the latest technological advancements

Free Customization Offerings:

All the customers of this report will be entitled to receive one of the following free customization options:

  • Company Profiling
    • Comprehensive profiling of additional market players (up to 3)
    • SWOT Analysis of key players (up to 3)
  • Regional Segmentation
    • Market estimations, Forecasts and CAGR of any prominent country as per the client's interest (Note: Depends on feasibility check)
  • Competitive Benchmarking
    • Benchmarking of key players based on product portfolio, geographical presence, and strategic alliances

Table of Contents

1 Executive Summary

2 Preface

  • 2.1 Abstract
  • 2.2 Stake Holders
  • 2.3 Research Scope
  • 2.4 Research Methodology
    • 2.4.1 Data Mining
    • 2.4.2 Data Analysis
    • 2.4.3 Data Validation
    • 2.4.4 Research Approach
  • 2.5 Research Sources
    • 2.5.1 Primary Research Sources
    • 2.5.2 Secondary Research Sources
    • 2.5.3 Assumptions

3 Market Trend Analysis

  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Drivers
  • 3.3 Restraints
  • 3.4 Opportunities
  • 3.5 Threats
  • 3.6 End User Analysis
  • 3.7 Emerging Markets
  • 3.8 Impact of Covid-19

4 Porters Five Force Analysis

  • 4.1 Bargaining power of suppliers
  • 4.2 Bargaining power of buyers
  • 4.3 Threat of substitutes
  • 4.4 Threat of new entrants
  • 4.5 Competitive rivalry

5 Global Standard Pen Needles Market, By Drug Type

  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Insulin
  • 5.3 Growth Hormone
  • 5.4 GLP-1
  • 5.5 Other Drug Types

6 Global Standard Pen Needles Market, By Disease Indication

  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Diabetes
  • 6.3 Hormone Deficiency
  • 6.4 Obesity

7 Global Standard Pen Needles Market, By Needle Size

  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 4 mm
  • 7.3 5 mm
  • 7.4 6 mm
  • 7.5 8 mm
  • 7.6 12 mm

8 Global Standard Pen Needles Market, By Usability

  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Disposable Pen Needles
  • 8.3 Reusable Pen Needles

9 Global Standard Pen Needles Market, By Mode of Purchase

  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 Retail
  • 9.3 Online Purchase
  • 9.4 Non-Retail Channels

10 Global Standard Pen Needles Market, By End User

  • 10.1 Introduction
  • 10.2 Hospitals
  • 10.3 Home Healthcare
  • 10.4 Clinics
  • 10.5 Other End Users

11 Global Standard Pen Needles Market, By Geography

  • 11.1 Introduction
  • 11.2 North America
    • 11.2.1 US
    • 11.2.2 Canada
    • 11.2.3 Mexico
  • 11.3 Europe
    • 11.3.1 Germany
    • 11.3.2 UK
    • 11.3.3 Italy
    • 11.3.4 France
    • 11.3.5 Spain
    • 11.3.6 Rest of Europe
  • 11.4 Asia Pacific
    • 11.4.1 Japan
    • 11.4.2 China
    • 11.4.3 India
    • 11.4.4 Australia
    • 11.4.5 New Zealand
    • 11.4.6 South Korea
    • 11.4.7 Rest of Asia Pacific
  • 11.5 South America
    • 11.5.1 Argentina
    • 11.5.2 Brazil
    • 11.5.3 Chile
    • 11.5.4 Rest of South America
  • 11.6 Middle East & Africa
    • 11.6.1 Saudi Arabia
    • 11.6.2 UAE
    • 11.6.3 Qatar
    • 11.6.4 South Africa
    • 11.6.5 Rest of Middle East & Africa

12 Key Developments

  • 12.1 Agreements, Partnerships, Collaborations and Joint Ventures
  • 12.2 Acquisitions & Mergers
  • 12.3 New Product Launch
  • 12.4 Expansions
  • 12.5 Other Key Strategies

13 Company Profiling

  • 13.1 Becton, Dickinson and Company
  • 13.2 Berpu Medical Technology Co., Ltd.
  • 13.3 Novo Nordisk A/S
  • 13.4 HTL-STREFA
  • 13.5 Embecta Corp.
  • 13.6 GlucoRx Limited
  • 13.7 Ypsomed AG
  • 13.8 ARKRAY, Inc.
  • 13.9 B. Braun SE
  • 13.10 AdvaCare Pharma
  • 13.11 Owen Mumford Ltd.
  • 13.12 Allison Medical, Inc.
  • 13.13 Terumo Corporation
  • 13.14 UltiMed, Inc.
  • 13.15 NIPRO Corporation

List of Tables

  • Table 1 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Region (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 2 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Drug Type (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 3 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Insulin (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 4 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Growth Hormone (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 5 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By GLP-1 (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 6 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Other Drug Types (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 7 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Disease Indication (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 8 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Diabetes (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 9 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Hormone Deficiency (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 10 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Obesity (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 11 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Needle Size (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 12 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By 4 mm (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 13 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By 5 mm (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 14 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By 6 mm (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 15 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By 8 mm (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 16 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By 12 mm (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 17 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Usability (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 18 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Disposable Pen Needles (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 19 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Reusable Pen Needles (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 20 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Mode of Purchase (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 21 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Retail (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 22 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Online Purchase (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 23 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Non-Retail Channels (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 24 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By End User (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 25 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Hospitals (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 26 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Home Healthcare (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 27 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Clinics (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 28 Global Standard Pen Needles Market Outlook, By Other End Users (2024-2032) ($MN)

Note: Tables for North America, Europe, APAC, South America, and Middle East & Africa Regions are also represented in the same manner as above.