封面
市場調查報告書
商品編碼
1734825

2032 年汽車排氣消音器市場預測:按組件、車輛、燃料類型、技術、最終用戶和地區進行的全球分析

Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Forecasts to 2032 - Global Analysis By Component (Exhaust Manifold, Catalytic Converter, Muffler, Resonator, Tailpipe, and Other Components), Vehicle, Fuel Type, Technology, End User and By Geography

出版日期: | 出版商: Stratistics Market Research Consulting | 英文 200+ Pages | 商品交期: 2-3個工作天內

價格

根據 Stratistics MRC 的數據,全球汽車排氣消音器市場預計在 2025 年達到 515 億美元,到 2032 年將達到 860 億美元,預測期內的複合年成長率為 7.6%。

汽車排氣消音器是車輛排氣系統的重要組成部分,旨在降低引擎燃燒產生的噪音。它使用腔室和吸音材料來抑制聲音振動,同時允許廢氣有效流動。現代消音器還裝有觸媒轉換器,有助於最大限度地減少有害廢氣。該設計平衡了噪音抑制、背壓降低和排放氣體控制,以提高駕駛舒適度和引擎性能,同時有助於滿足環境法規。

根據歐洲汽車工業協會(ACEA)的數據,2019年每千人擁有汽車持有為569輛。

電動車(混合排氣系統)的普及率不斷提高

混合動力電動車(HEV)產量的不斷增加推動了對先進排氣消音器系統的需求。混合動力汽車需要特殊的消音器來滿足噪音和排放標準。全球範圍內針對車輛排放的嚴格規定正在推動市場的成長。消費者對省油環保汽車的需求正在推動其普及。消音器設計的創新提高了混合動力系統的性能。電動車市場的擴張正在創造新的機會。

先進消音器系統高成本

採用輕質材料和降噪技術的先進消音器系統製造成本很高。高成本將阻礙其在注重預算的市場和小型車領域的應用。原物料價格波動會增加製造成本。需要特殊的生產過程,增加了成本。小眾消音器設計規模經濟有限,限制了其可承受性。先進系統的高維護成本進一步限制了其採用。

輕量化消音器的開發

採用鈦和複合材料等材料開發輕型消音器正在提高汽車的燃油效率。這些消音器符合嚴格的排放氣體和噪音法規,並正在引起市場的興趣。對高性能車輛的需求不斷成長,推動了輕型消音器的採用。製造流程的創新正在降低生產成本。汽車製造商和消音器製造商之間的合作正在促進技術進步。電動和混合動力汽車輕量化的趨勢增加了機會。注重輕量化設計擴大了市場潛力。

供應鏈中斷

地緣政治緊張局勢和自然災害導致供應鏈頻繁中斷,影響了生產消音器所需原料的可得性。不銹鋼等金屬成本的上升將影響盈利。勞動力短缺和物流延誤擾亂了製造過程。對全球供應商的依賴增加了發生中斷的脆弱性。貿易限制和關稅進一步使供應鏈複雜化。缺乏多樣化的籌資策略會加劇風險。

COVID-19的影響:

新冠疫情導致汽車生產暫停,從而減少了對排氣消音器的需求。供應鏈中斷導致原料交付延遲,影響生產。不過,疫情過後汽車業的復甦提振了消音器的需求。危機期間,混合動力汽車汽車和電動車的轉變加速,刺激了技術創新。疫情期間原物料成本上漲影響了人們的負擔能力。對後疫情時代排放法規的關注支持了市場復甦。消費者對永續汽車的興趣日益濃厚,預計將推動成長。

排氣歧管市場預計將成為預測期間最大的市場

排氣歧管部分預計將在預測期內佔據最大的市場佔有率,因為它在管理汽車排放氣體和引擎性能方面發揮著至關重要的作用。歧管是傳統和混合排氣系統中必不可少的部件。嚴格的排放法規正在推動對高性能歧管的需求。歧管設計的進步提高了耐用性和效率。混合動力汽車產量的不斷成長支撐了該領域的成長。汽車產業非常重視燃油效率,這推動了市場需求。

預計預測期內乘用車市場將以最高的複合年成長率成長。

由於消費者對省油環保車的需求不斷增加,預計乘用車領域將在預測期內達到最高成長率。嚴格的噪音和廢氣法規推動了乘用車採用先進的消音器。電動和混合動力汽車市場的成長正在推動該領域的擴張。輕量化、高性能消音器的技術創新正在增強汽車的吸引力。都市化和可支配收入的增加推動了汽車持有的增加。配備客製化排氣系統的高檔汽車的趨勢將支持這一成長。

佔比最大的地區:

在預測期內,由於中國、日本和印度等國家的汽車產量龐大,預計亞太地區將佔據最大的市場佔有率。汽車持有高和都市化正在推動對排氣消音器的需求。該地區嚴格的排放法規正在推動先進消音器的採用。主要汽車製造商和供應商的存在增強了市場的成長。低生產成本增強了競爭。消費者對混合動力汽車的需求不斷成長,推動市場擴張。

複合年成長率最高的地區:

由於嚴格的排放法規和對省油車的需求,預計北美地區在預測期內的複合年成長率最高。該地區先進的汽車生態系統促進了消音器技術的創新。美國憑藉其高銷量的乘用車和商用車引領市場。對輕型、高效能消音器研發的投資正在推動成長。消費者對混合動力汽車的偏好日益成長,推動了此次擴張。與主要汽車製造商的合作促進了產品開發。

免費客製化服務:

訂閱此報告的客戶可享有以下免費自訂選項之一:

  • 公司簡介
    • 全面分析其他市場參與者(最多 3 家公司)
    • 主要企業的SWOT分析(最多3家公司)
  • 地理細分
    • 根據客戶興趣對主要國家市場進行估計、預測和複合年成長率(註:基於可行性檢查)
  • 競爭基準化分析
    • 根據產品系列、地理分佈和策略聯盟對主要企業基準化分析

目錄

第1章執行摘要

第2章 前言

  • 概述
  • 相關利益者
  • 研究範圍
  • 調查方法
    • 資料探勘
    • 數據分析
    • 數據檢驗
    • 研究途徑
  • 研究材料
    • 主要研究資料
    • 次級研究資訊來源
    • 先決條件

第3章市場走勢分析

  • 驅動程式
  • 限制因素
  • 機會
  • 威脅
  • 技術分析
  • 最終用戶分析
  • 新興市場
  • COVID-19的影響

第4章 波特五力分析

  • 供應商的議價能力
  • 買家的議價能力
  • 替代品的威脅
  • 新進入者的威脅
  • 競爭對手之間的競爭

第5章全球汽車排氣消音器市場(按組件)

  • 排氣歧管
  • 觸媒轉換器
  • 圍巾
  • 共振器
  • 尾管
  • 其他組件

第6章全球汽車排氣消音器市場(依車型)

  • 搭乘用車
  • 商用車
    • 輕型商用車
    • 大型商用車
    • 公車和遠距
  • 其他車輛

第7章全球汽車排氣消音器市場(依燃料型)

  • 汽油
  • 柴油引擎
  • 替代燃料

8. 全球汽車排氣消音器市場(按技術)

  • 柴油微粒過濾器(DPF)
  • 選擇性催化還原(SCR)
  • 廢氣再循環(EGR)
  • 其他技術

第9章全球汽車排氣消音器市場(按最終用戶)

  • OEM
  • 售後市場
  • 其他最終用戶

第 10 章全球汽車排氣消音器市場(按地區)

  • 北美洲
    • 美國
    • 加拿大
    • 墨西哥
  • 歐洲
    • 德國
    • 英國
    • 義大利
    • 法國
    • 西班牙
    • 其他歐洲國家
  • 亞太地區
    • 日本
    • 中國
    • 印度
    • 澳洲
    • 紐西蘭
    • 韓國
    • 其他亞太地區
  • 南美洲
    • 阿根廷
    • 巴西
    • 智利
    • 南美洲其他地區
  • 中東和非洲
    • 沙烏地阿拉伯
    • 阿拉伯聯合大公國
    • 卡達
    • 南非
    • 其他中東和非洲地區

第11章 重大進展

  • 協議、夥伴關係、合作和合資企業
  • 收購與合併
  • 新產品發布
  • 業務擴展
  • 其他關鍵策略

第12章 公司概況

  • Benteler International AG
  • Bosal International NV
  • Continental AG
  • Eberspacher Climate Control Systems GmbH & Co. KG
  • Faurecia SA
  • Friedrich Boysen GmbH & Co. KG
  • Futaba Industrial Co. Ltd.
  • Harbin Airui Automotive Exhaust Systems Co. Ltd.
  • Johnson Matthey
  • Klarius Products Ltd
  • Sango Co., Ltd.
  • Sejong Industrial Co., Ltd.
  • Tenneco, Inc.
  • Umicore
  • Yutaka Giken Company Limited
Product Code: SMRC29462

According to Stratistics MRC, the Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market is accounted for $51.5 billion in 2025 and is expected to reach $86.0 billion by 2032 growing at a CAGR of 7.6% during the forecast period. Automotive Exhaust Muffler is a critical component of a vehicle's exhaust system, designed to reduce noise produced by engine combustion. Using chambers and sound-absorbing materials, it dampens acoustic vibrations while allowing exhaust gases to flow efficiently. Modern mufflers also incorporate catalytic converters to minimize harmful emissions. Their design balances noise suppression, backpressure reduction, and emission control, ensuring compliance with environmental regulations while enhancing driving comfort and engine performance.

According to European Automobile Manufacturers' Association (ACEA), vehicles per capita were recorded at 569 vehicles per 1,000 inhabitants in 2019.

Market Dynamics:

Driver:

Increasing adoption of electric vehicles (hybrid exhaust systems)

The rise in hybrid electric vehicle (HEV) production is driving demand for advanced exhaust muffler systems. Hybrid vehicles require specialized mufflers to meet noise and emission standards. Stringent global regulations on vehicle emissions are propelling market growth. Consumer demand for fuel-efficient and eco-friendly vehicles supports adoption. Innovations in muffler designs enhance performance in hybrid systems. The expansion of the electric vehicle market is creating new opportunities.

Restraint:

High cost of advanced muffler systems

Advanced muffler systems, incorporating lightweight materials and noise-reduction technologies, are expensive to produce. High costs deter adoption in budget-conscious markets and smaller vehicle segments. Fluctuating raw material prices increase manufacturing expenses. The need for specialized production processes adds to the cost burden. Limited economies of scale in niche muffler designs restrict affordability. High maintenance costs for advanced systems further discourage adoption.

Opportunity:

Development of lightweight mufflers

The development of lightweight mufflers using materials like titanium and composites is enhancing vehicle fuel efficiency. These mufflers meet stringent emission and noise regulations, driving market interest. The growing demand for high-performance vehicles supports lightweight muffler adoption. Innovations in manufacturing processes are reducing production costs. Partnerships between automakers and muffler manufacturers foster technological advancements. The trend of vehicle lightweighting in electric and hybrid models boosts opportunities. This focus on lightweight designs is expanding market potential.

Threat:

Supply chain disruptions

Frequent supply chain disruptions, caused by geopolitical tensions or natural disasters, impact raw material availability for muffler production. Rising costs of metals like stainless steel affect profitability. Labor shortages and logistics delays hinder manufacturing processes. Dependence on global suppliers increases vulnerability to disruptions. Trade restrictions and tariffs further complicate supply chains. Lack of diversified sourcing strategies exacerbates risks.

Covid-19 Impact:

The COVID-19 pandemic halted automotive production, reducing demand for exhaust mufflers. Supply chain disruptions delayed raw material deliveries, impacting manufacturing. However, the recovery of the automotive sector post-pandemic boosted muffler demand. The shift toward hybrid and electric vehicles accelerated during the crisis, driving innovation. Rising raw material costs affected affordability during the pandemic. The focus on emission regulations post-COVID supported market recovery. Growing consumer interest in sustainable vehicles is expected to drive growth.

The exhaust manifold segment is expected to be the largest during the forecast period

The exhaust manifold segment is expected to account for the largest market share during the forecast period, propelled by its critical role in managing vehicle emissions and engine performance. Manifolds are essential components in both traditional and hybrid exhaust systems. Stringent emission regulations drive demand for high-performance manifolds. Advances in manifold designs improve durability and efficiency. The rise in hybrid vehicle production supports segment growth. The automotive industry's focus on fuel efficiency enhances market demand.

The passenger cars segment is expected to have the highest CAGR during the forecast period

Over the forecast period, the passenger cars segment is predicted to witness the highest growth rate, driven by rising consumer demand for fuel-efficient and eco-friendly vehicles. Stringent noise and emission regulations are boosting the adoption of advanced mufflers in passenger cars. The growth of the electric and hybrid car market fuels segment expansion. Innovations in lightweight and high-performance mufflers enhance vehicle appeal. Urbanization and rising disposable incomes drive car ownership. The trend of premium vehicles with customized exhaust systems supports growth.

Region with largest share:

During the forecast period, the Asia Pacific region is expected to hold the largest market share owing to its massive automotive production in countries like China, Japan, and India. High vehicle ownership rates and urbanization drive demand for exhaust mufflers. Stringent emission regulations in the region support advanced muffler adoption. The presence of major automakers and suppliers strengthens market growth. Low production costs enhance competitiveness. Rising consumer demand for hybrid vehicles fuels expansion.

Region with highest CAGR:

Over the forecast period, the North America region is anticipated to exhibit the highest CAGR, fueled by stringent emission regulations and demand for fuel-efficient vehicles. The region's advanced automotive ecosystem drives innovation in muffler technologies. The U.S. market leads due to high passenger car and commercial vehicle sales. Investments in R&D for lightweight and high-performance mufflers boost growth. Growing consumer preference for hybrid vehicles supports expansion. Partnerships with major automakers drive product development.

Key players in the market

Some of the key players in Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market include Benteler International AG, Bosal International N.V., Continental AG, Eberspacher Climate Control Systems GmbH & Co. KG, Faurecia S.A., Friedrich Boysen GmbH & Co. KG, Futaba Industrial Co. Ltd., Harbin Airui Automotive Exhaust Systems Co. Ltd., Johnson Matthey, Klarius Products Ltd, Sango Co., Ltd., Sejong Industrial Co., Ltd., Tenneco, Inc., Umicore, and Yutaka Giken Company Limited.

Key Developments:

In April 2025, Tenneco launched an innovative lightweight muffler design using advanced acoustic materials that reduces weight by 20% while maintaining superior noise cancellation for electric vehicle applications.

In March 2025, Faurecia introduced a modular exhaust system with integrated particulate filters that meets Euro 7 emissions standards while optimizing backpressure for improved fuel efficiency.

In January 2025, Eberspacher Climate Control Systems GmbH & Co. KG announced the development of an active noise cancellation exhaust system to enhance cabin comfort.

Components Covered:

  • Exhaust Manifold
  • Catalytic Converter
  • Muffler
  • Resonator
  • Tailpipe
  • Other Components

Vehicles Covered:

  • Passenger Cars
  • Commercial Vehicles
  • Other Vehicles

Fuel Types Covered:

  • Gasoline
  • Diesel
  • Alternative Fuels

Technologies Covered:

  • Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF)
  • Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
  • Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
  • Other Technologies

End Users Covered:

  • OEMs
  • Aftermarket
  • Other End Users

Regions Covered:

  • North America
    • US
    • Canada
    • Mexico
  • Europe
    • Germany
    • UK
    • Italy
    • France
    • Spain
    • Rest of Europe
  • Asia Pacific
    • Japan
    • China
    • India
    • Australia
    • New Zealand
    • South Korea
    • Rest of Asia Pacific
  • South America
    • Argentina
    • Brazil
    • Chile
    • Rest of South America
  • Middle East & Africa
    • Saudi Arabia
    • UAE
    • Qatar
    • South Africa
    • Rest of Middle East & Africa

What our report offers:

  • Market share assessments for the regional and country-level segments
  • Strategic recommendations for the new entrants
  • Covers Market data for the years 2024, 2025, 2026, 2028, and 2032
  • Market Trends (Drivers, Constraints, Opportunities, Threats, Challenges, Investment Opportunities, and recommendations)
  • Strategic recommendations in key business segments based on the market estimations
  • Competitive landscaping mapping the key common trends
  • Company profiling with detailed strategies, financials, and recent developments
  • Supply chain trends mapping the latest technological advancements

Free Customization Offerings:

All the customers of this report will be entitled to receive one of the following free customization options:

  • Company Profiling
    • Comprehensive profiling of additional market players (up to 3)
    • SWOT Analysis of key players (up to 3)
  • Regional Segmentation
    • Market estimations, Forecasts and CAGR of any prominent country as per the client's interest (Note: Depends on feasibility check)
  • Competitive Benchmarking
    • Benchmarking of key players based on product portfolio, geographical presence, and strategic alliances

Table of Contents

1 Executive Summary

2 Preface

  • 2.1 Abstract
  • 2.2 Stake Holders
  • 2.3 Research Scope
  • 2.4 Research Methodology
    • 2.4.1 Data Mining
    • 2.4.2 Data Analysis
    • 2.4.3 Data Validation
    • 2.4.4 Research Approach
  • 2.5 Research Sources
    • 2.5.1 Primary Research Sources
    • 2.5.2 Secondary Research Sources
    • 2.5.3 Assumptions

3 Market Trend Analysis

  • 3.1 Introduction
  • 3.2 Drivers
  • 3.3 Restraints
  • 3.4 Opportunities
  • 3.5 Threats
  • 3.6 Technology Analysis
  • 3.7 End User Analysis
  • 3.8 Emerging Markets
  • 3.9 Impact of Covid-19

4 Porters Five Force Analysis

  • 4.1 Bargaining power of suppliers
  • 4.2 Bargaining power of buyers
  • 4.3 Threat of substitutes
  • 4.4 Threat of new entrants
  • 4.5 Competitive rivalry

5 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market, By Component

  • 5.1 Introduction
  • 5.2 Exhaust Manifold
  • 5.3 Catalytic Converter
  • 5.4 Muffler
  • 5.5 Resonator
  • 5.6 Tailpipe
  • 5.7 Other Components

6 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market, By Vehicle

  • 6.1 Introduction
  • 6.2 Passenger Cars
  • 6.3 Commercial Vehicles
    • 6.3.1 Light Commercial Vehicles
    • 6.3.2 Heavy Commercial Vehicles
    • 6.3.3 Buses & Coaches
  • 6.4 Other Vehicles

7 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market, By Fuel Type

  • 7.1 Introduction
  • 7.2 Gasoline
  • 7.3 Diesel
  • 7.4 Alternative Fuels

8 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market, By Technology

  • 8.1 Introduction
  • 8.2 Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF)
  • 8.3 Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR)
  • 8.4 Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR)
  • 8.5 Other Technologies

9 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market, By End User

  • 9.1 Introduction
  • 9.2 OEMs
  • 9.3 Aftermarket
  • 9.4 Other End Users

10 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market, By Geography

  • 10.1 Introduction
  • 10.2 North America
    • 10.2.1 US
    • 10.2.2 Canada
    • 10.2.3 Mexico
  • 10.3 Europe
    • 10.3.1 Germany
    • 10.3.2 UK
    • 10.3.3 Italy
    • 10.3.4 France
    • 10.3.5 Spain
    • 10.3.6 Rest of Europe
  • 10.4 Asia Pacific
    • 10.4.1 Japan
    • 10.4.2 China
    • 10.4.3 India
    • 10.4.4 Australia
    • 10.4.5 New Zealand
    • 10.4.6 South Korea
    • 10.4.7 Rest of Asia Pacific
  • 10.5 South America
    • 10.5.1 Argentina
    • 10.5.2 Brazil
    • 10.5.3 Chile
    • 10.5.4 Rest of South America
  • 10.6 Middle East & Africa
    • 10.6.1 Saudi Arabia
    • 10.6.2 UAE
    • 10.6.3 Qatar
    • 10.6.4 South Africa
    • 10.6.5 Rest of Middle East & Africa

11 Key Developments

  • 11.1 Agreements, Partnerships, Collaborations and Joint Ventures
  • 11.2 Acquisitions & Mergers
  • 11.3 New Product Launch
  • 11.4 Expansions
  • 11.5 Other Key Strategies

12 Company Profiling

  • 12.1 Benteler International AG
  • 12.2 Bosal International N.V.
  • 12.3 Continental AG
  • 12.4 Eberspacher Climate Control Systems GmbH & Co. KG
  • 12.5 Faurecia S.A.
  • 12.6 Friedrich Boysen GmbH & Co. KG
  • 12.7 Futaba Industrial Co. Ltd.
  • 12.8 Harbin Airui Automotive Exhaust Systems Co. Ltd.
  • 12.9 Johnson Matthey
  • 12.10 Klarius Products Ltd
  • 12.11 Sango Co., Ltd.
  • 12.12 Sejong Industrial Co., Ltd.
  • 12.13 Tenneco, Inc.
  • 12.14 Umicore
  • 12.15 Yutaka Giken Company Limited

List of Tables

  • Table 1 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Region (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 2 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Component (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 3 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Exhaust Manifold (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 4 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Catalytic Converter (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 5 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Muffler (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 6 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Resonator (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 7 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Tailpipe (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 8 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Other Components (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 9 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Vehicle (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 10 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Passenger Cars (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 11 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Commercial Vehicles (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 12 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Light Commercial Vehicles (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 13 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Heavy Commercial Vehicles (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 14 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Buses & Coaches (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 15 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Other Vehicles (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 16 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Fuel Type (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 17 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Gasoline (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 18 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Diesel (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 19 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Alternative Fuels (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 20 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Technology (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 21 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Diesel Particulate Filter (DPF) (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 22 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Selective Catalytic Reduction (SCR) (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 23 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Exhaust Gas Recirculation (EGR) (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 24 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Other Technologies (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 25 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By End User (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 26 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By OEMs (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 27 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Aftermarket (2024-2032) ($MN)
  • Table 28 Global Automotive Exhaust Muffler Market Outlook, By Other End Users (2024-2032) ($MN)

Note: Tables for North America, Europe, APAC, South America, and Middle East & Africa Regions are also represented in the same manner as above.